Porphyromonas gingivalis , a recognized periodontal pathogen, synthesizes free ceramides as well as other phosphorylated ceramide lipids. The purpose of this study was to separate complex lipids of P. gingivalis by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and determine the structures and biological activities of the major ceramide classes. Using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, electrospray tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-MS/MS) and NMR analyses, three major classes of dihydroceramides were identified in specific HPLC fractions, with all classes containing the same dihydroceramide base structures (

Periodontitis is one of the most common chronic inflammatory diseases. A number of putative bacterial pathogens have been associated with the disease and are used as diagnostic markers. In the present study, we compared the prevalence of oral bacterial species in the subgingival biofilm of generalized aggressive periodontitis (GAP) (n ‫؍‬ 44) and chronic periodontitis (CP) (n ‫؍‬ 46) patients with that of a periodontitis-resistant control group (PR) (n ‫؍‬ 21). The control group consisted of subjects at least 65 years of age with only minimal or no periodontitis and no history of periodontal treatment. A total of 555 samples from 111 subjects were included in this study. The samples were analyzed by PCR of 16S rRNA gene fragments and subsequent dot blot hybridization using oligonucleotide probes specific for Aggregatibacter (Actinobacillus) actinomycetemcomitans, Porphyromonas gingivalis, Prevotella intermedia, Tannerella forsythia, a Treponema denticola-like phylogroup (Treponema phylogroup II), Treponema lecithinolyticum, Campylobacter rectus, Fusobacterium spp., and Fusobacterium nucleatum, as well as Capnocytophaga ochracea. Our data confirm a high prevalence of the putative periodontal pathogens P. gingivalis, P. intermedia, and T. forsythia in the periodontitis groups. However, these species were also frequently detected in the PR group. For most of the species tested, the prevalence was more associated with increased probing depth than with the subject group. T. lecithinolyticum was the only periodontopathogenic species showing significant differences both between GAP and CP patients and between GAP patients and PR subjects. C. ochracea was associated with the PR subjects, regardless of the probing depth. These results indicate that T. lecithinolyticum may be a diagnostic marker for GAP and C. ochracea for periodontal health. They also suggest that current presumptions of the association of specific bacteria with periodontal health and disease require further evaluation.

BackgroundBacteria in periodontal pockets develop complex sessile communities that attach to the tooth surface. These highly dynamic microfloral environments challenge both clinicians and researchers alike. The exploration of structural organisation and bacterial interactions within these biofilms is critically important for a thorough understanding of periodontal disease. In recent years, Filifactor alocis, a fastidious, Gram-positive, obligately anaerobic rod was repeatedly identified in periodontal lesions using DNA-based methods. It has been suggested to be a marker for periodontal deterioration. The present study investigated the epidemiology of F. alocis in periodontal pockets and analysed the spatial arrangement and architectural role of the organism in in vivo grown subgingival biofilms.ResultsA species-specific oligonucleotide probe, FIAL, was designed and evaluated. A total of 490 subgingival plaque samples were submitted to PCR and subsequent dot blot hybridization to compare the prevalence of F. alocis in patients suffering from generalized aggressive periodontitis (GAP), chronic periodontitis (CP), and control subjects resistant to periodontitis. Moreover, a specially designed carrier system was used to collect in vivo grown subgingival biofilms from GAP patients. Subsequent topographic analysis was performed using fluorescence in situ hybridization.While the majority of patients suffering from GAP or CP harboured F. alocis, it was rarely detected in the control group. In the examined carrier-borne biofilms the organism predominantly colonized apical parts of the pocket in close proximity to the soft tissues and was involved in numerous structures that constitute characteristic architectural features of subgingival periodontal biofilms.ConclusionsF. alocis is likely to make a relevant contribution to the pathogenetic structure of biofilms accounting for periodontal inflammation and can be considered an excellent marker organism for periodontal disease.

Periodontitis, a disease responsible for tooth loss worldwide, is characterized by chronic inflammation of the periodontium, eventually leading to destruction of periodontal ligaments and supporting alveolar bone. Spirochetes, identified by dark-field microscopy as being the most predominant bacteria in advanced lesions, are thought to play a causative role. Various spirochetal morphotypes were observed, but most of these morphotypes are as yet uncultivable. To assess the role of these organisms we designed oligonucleotide probes for the identification of both cultivable and so far uncultivable spirochetes in periodontitis patients. Subgingival plaque specimens taken from diseased sites (n = 200) and healthy control sites (n = 44) from 53 patients with rapidly progressive periodontitis (RPP) were submitted to direct in situ hybridization or dot blot hybridization after prior amplification with eubacterial primers. Spirochetes were found in all patients, but their distributions varied considerably. Parallel use of oligonucleotide probes specific for cultivable or so far uncultivable treponemes suggested the presence of novel yet unknown organisms at a high frequency. These uncultivable treponemes were visualized by fluorescence in situ hybridization, and their morphologies, sizes, and numbers could be estimated. All RPP patients included in this study harbored oral treponemes that represent either novel species, e.g.,Treponema maltophilum, or uncultivable phylotypes. Therefore, it is necessary to include these organisms in etiologic considerations and to strengthen efforts to cultivate these as yet uncultivable treponemes.

The adjunctive use of antimicrobial mouthrinses to help control supragingival plaque and gingivitis has been shown to contribute significantly to patients' daily oral hygiene regimens. This controlled clinical study used an observer-blind, randomized, cross-over design in a 4-day plaque regrowth model to determine the relative efficacies of an essential oil-containing mouthrinse (Listerine Antiseptic) and an amine fluoride/stannous fluoride-containing mouthrinse (Meridol) in inhibiting the development of supragingival plaque. A 0.1% chlorhexidine mouthrinse (Chlorhexamed-Fluid) was used as a positive control, and a 5% hydroalcohol solution was used as a negative control. Dosing for each of the test mouthrinses was based on the manufacturers' label directions. Because the volume and rinse time for each of the test mouthrinses were different, each test mouthrinse had its own negative control group. On day 1 of each test period, subjects received an oral soft and hard tissue examination and a dental prophylaxis to remove all plaque, calculus, and extrinsic stain. Starting the same day, subjects refrained from all mechanical oral hygiene procedures for the next 4 days and rinsed 2x daily under supervision with their randomly-assigned mouthrinse. On day 5, each subject received a plaque assessment as well as an oral examination to assess side effects. Each test period was separated by a 2-week washout period. 23 volunteers with a median age of 26 years completed the study. Compared to the respective placebos, the median percent plaque reductions at 5 days were 23.0%, 12.2%, and 38.2% for the essential oil, amine/stannous fluoride, and chlorhexidine rinses, respectively. The plaque reductions seen in the essential oil and chlorhexidine rinse groups were statistically significant (p < 0.001), while the plaque reduction in the amine/stannous fluoride rinse group was not statistically significant (p > 0.05). Additionally, the essential oil rinse was significantly more effective (p < 0.001) than the amine/stannous fluoride rinse in inhibiting plaque accumulation in this clinical model.

The etiologic role of oral treponemes in human periodontitis is still under debate. Although seen by dark-field microscopy in large numbers, their possible role is still unclear since they comprise some 60 different phylotypes, most of which are still uncultured. To determine their status as mere commensals or opportunistic pathogens, molecular epidemiological studies are required that include both cultured and as-yet-uncultured organisms. Here we present such data, comparing treponemal populations from chronic periodontitis (CP) or generalized aggressive periodontitis (GAP) patients. As a periodontitis-resistant (PR) control group, we included elderly volunteers with more than 20 natural teeth and no history of periodontal treatment and no or minimal clinical signs of periodontitis. Almost every treponemal phylotype was present in all three groups. For most treponemes, the proportion of subjects positive for a certain species or phylotype was higher in both periodontitis groups than in the PR group. This difference was pronounced for treponemes of the phylogenetic groups II and IV and for Treponema socranskii and Treponema lecithinolyticum. Between the periodontitis groups the only significant differences were seen for T. socranskii and T. lecithinolyticum, which were found more often in periodontal pockets of GAP patients than of CP patients. In contrast, no difference was found for Treponema denticola. Our findings, however, strengthen the hypothesis of treponemes being opportunistic pathogens. It appears that T. socranskii, T. lecithinolyticum and group II and IV treponemes may represent good indicators for periodontitis and suggest the value of the respective probes for microbiological diagnosis in periodontitis subjects.

The aetiology of periodontal disease has been a field of intensive research in the past decades. Along with a variety of other putative pathogens, different members of the genus Selenomonas have repeatedly been associated with both generalized aggressive periodontitis and chronic periodontitis. For the present study, a specific oligonucleotide probe targeting the majority of all oral Selenomonas spp. was designed. Their prevalence was determined, using dot-blot hybridization, in a total of 742 subgingival samples collected from patients with generalized aggressive (n=62) and chronic periodontitis (n=82), and from periodontitis-resistant subjects (n=19). In addition, fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and electron microscopy were performed to analyze the spatial arrangement of Selenomonas in subgingival biofilms collected from patients with generalized aggressive periodontitis. In the samples from patients, Selenomonas spp. showed a lower prevalence in both diseased groups compared with other putative pathogens, and a relatively high prevalence in the periodontitis-resistant group. Consequently, Selenomonas spp. do not seem to be suitable diagnostic marker organisms for periodontal disease. By contrast, FISH and electron microscopic analysis of periodontal carriers revealed that Selenomonas spp. appeared in large numbers in all parts of the collected biofilms and seemed, if present in a site from patients, to make a relevant contribution to their structural organization.

The Gram-negative periodontal pathogen Porphyromonas gingivalis synthesizes several classes of novel phosphorylated complex lipids, including the recently characterized phosphorylated dihydroceramides. These sphingolipids promote the interleukin-1 (IL-1)-mediated secretion of inflammatory mediators from fibroblasts, including prostaglandin E 2 and 6-keto prostaglandin F 2a , and alter gingival fibroblast morphology in culture. This report demonstrates that one additional class of phosphorylated complex lipids of P. gingivalis promotes IL-1-mediated secretory responses and morphological changes in cultured fibroblasts. Structural characterization identified the new phospholipid class as 1,2-diacyl phosphatidylethanolamine, which substituted predominantly with isobranched C 15:0 and C 13:0 fatty acids. The isobranched fatty acids, rather than unbranched fatty acids, and the phosphoethanolamine head group were identified as the essential structural elements required for the promotion of IL-1-mediated secretory responses. These structural components are also observed in specific phosphorylated sphingolipids of P. gingivalis and likely contribute to the biological activity of these substances, in addition to the phosphatidylethanolamine lipids described in this report. Supplementary key words interleukin-1b . prostaglandin E 2 . gingival fibroblast . long-chain base . gas chromatography-mass spectrometry . electrospray tandem mass spectrometry Porphyromonas gingivalis is a Gram-negative anaerobic organism that resides in the gingival sulcus surrounding the teeth, particularly at sites of chronic inflammatory or destructive periodontal diseases. A recent report demonstrated that P. gingivalis synthesizes two major phosphorylated dihydroceramides, one of which potentiates interleukin-1 (IL-1)-mediated prostaglandin E 2 (PGE 2 ) secretory responses in gingival fibroblasts and markedly alters gingival fibroblast morphology in culture (1). These lipids are also recovered from diseased tooth roots (2), and indirect evidence indicates that the phosphoglycerol dihydroceramide lipids are the primary ceramides of P. gingivalis recovered in gingival tissues at disease sites (3). Therefore, P. gingivalis produces biologically active complex lipids that are recovered at periodontal disease sites.Recent investigations have demonstrated that P. gingivalis produces one additional class of phospholipids that also demonstrate substantial capacity to promote IL-1b-mediated prostaglandin secretion from gingival fibroblasts. However, this lipid class is not a sphingolipid, because it lacks amide-linked fatty acid. This report describes the structural characterization of this new phospholipid class and demonstrates the capacity of this lipid to promote prostaglandin secretory responses and morphological changes in cultured gingival fibroblasts. Lastly, using a structural analog as a control for the bacterial lipid fraction as well as the hydrolysis products of this bacterial lipid class, this report defines the critical structura...