This research examines the causality (For the remainder of the paper, the notion of causality refers to Granger causality.) links among renewable energy consumption (REC), CO emissions (CE), non-renewable energy consumption (NREC), and economic growth (GDP) using an autoregressive distributed lag model based on the pooled mean group estimation (ARDL-PMG) and applying Granger causality tests for a panel consisting of 22 African countries for the period between 1990 and 2011. There is unidirectional and irreversible short-run causality from CE to GDP. The causal direction between CE and REC is unobservable over the short-term. Moreover, we find unidirectional, short-run causality from REC to GDP. When testing per pair of variables, there are short-run bidirectional causalities among REC, CE, and GDP. However, if we add CE to the variables REC and NREC, the causality to GDP is observable, and causality from the pair REC and NREC to economic growth is neutral. Likewise, if we add NREC to the variables GDP and REC, there is causality. There are bidirectional long-run causalities among REC, CE, and GDP, which supports the feedback assumption. Causality from GDP to REC is not strong for the panel. If we test per pair of variables, the strong causality from GDP and CE to REC is neutral. The long-run PMG estimates show that NREC and gross domestic product increase CE, whereas REC decreases CE.

In this paper, we have shown that the operations of Mergers and Acquisitions (M&A) are necessary for the growth of banks and for passing to increase the scale of returns. The empirical results have confirmed this affirmation. The time has had a negative effect on efficiency while the dummy M&A variable has had positive effects. The composite mergers-time variable has had positive effects, which means that in the long run the M&A achieve all their aims. Our study, therefore, is the first to analyze the dynamic effects of mergers on bank performance derived from both the acquisition of another bank and time, using panel data methodology, for the period 2005-2013, in a sample of 60 acquire banks, in 17 European countries.

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Rentier and infra-rentier countries are more likely to overexploit their natural resources, which creates unfair growth (as long as we deprive future generations of their future endowments in terms of natural resources). This article reflects on the notion of “sustainable degrowth” by trying to situate it between economic growth and sustainable development. Our econometric study has allowed us to conclude that until then, the most prominent model is the pollutant. However, in the post-Kyoto period, 17 countries (from a sample of 33 countries) began to conceive growth that is less polluting.

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