A dynamic 1H NMR-based method for the estimation of olefin content in all cracked fuel range products, in general, and in gasoline/naphtha streams, in particular, irrespective of types and composition of olefins and boiling range of samples has been developed. This is in continuation of our earlier works where two methods were described for the determination of hydrocarbon types in straight-run gasoline (no olefins) and cracked full range gasoline/naphtha (with olefins). The average absolute number of unsaturated hydrogen (H) in the olefinic region (4.4–6.5 ppm) was directly estimated with the help of a 1H NMR spectrum using dynamic variables in terms of differential population of various kinds of olefins. The average alkyl chain length (n) was estimated by various methods including 13C NMR and carbon number distribution by a gas chromatography-based detailed hydrocarbon analyzer [DHA, ASTM D6730-01(2016)] and simulated distillation [ASTM D2887-16a] data. The percentage of unsaturated hydrogen (% UH) in an average olefin was then obtained providing a multiplication factor (f o) by which the weight percentage of olefin is estimated using a normalized 1H NMR spectrum. The dynamic estimation of H and n for each sample removes the possibilities of errors in the estimation. The method has efficiently been extended to coker kero and coker diesel range products where there has been no method available for olefin estimation. The method was validated by using DHA following ASTM D6730, by the Reformulyzer-based ASTM D6839 method, and finally by fluorescent indicator adsorption following ASTM D1319. All the methods were compared. Whereas the proposed NMR method is extremely general, free from manual error, the limitations of existing ASTM methods and the old NMR method vis á vis a new NMR method are also discussed.
Microwave technique was applied for the synthesis of Argemone biodiesel from Argemone oil under defined experimental conditions. The method presented has the potential to synthesize quality biofuel in timeefficient manner. It also results in higher yield of biodiesel while decreasing the reaction time by almost 75% when compared with conventional heating method. The biodiesel produced was tested for various physico-chemical properties and found to maintain the quality as recommended by various specifications. Reduction in the wear scar diameter of low-sulphur diesel from 432 to 256 m at a very low concentration of biodiesel (1.0%) was an additional advantage to produce biofuel. Keywords: Argemone, biodiesel, microwave technique, physico-chemical properties, tribological behaviour, wear scar.BIODIESEL has emerged as one of the most energyefficient and environment-friendly alternatives in recent times to satisfy the future energy needs. It can be directly used as a fuel with some engine modifications, or blended with petroleum diesel for use in diesel engines with few or no modifications [1][2][3][4][5][6] . The European Union has issued a directive (2003/30/EC), which mandates the use of biofuels ranging from 5.75% in 2010 to 20.00% in 2020 (calculated on the basis of energy content) for all transportation fuels marketed within the member states 7 . Biodiesel can be produced from the various edible and non-edible feedstocks as rapeseed [8][9][10] , soybean 11,12 , oil palm 13,14 , coconut 15,16 , sunflower 17,18 , Jatropha curcas 19,20 and Argemone maxicana 21 . In India, non-edible oils are the most suitable feedstock for biodiesel since the demand for edible oil exceeds the domestic supply. Much of the work has been carried out with J. curcas, but A. maxicana is comparatively less studied. A. maxicana plant is widely distributed in many parts of the world and is tolerant to drought and poor soil. Its seeds contain 22-36% of non-edible oil. Therefore, it has the potential to be utilized as a major feedstock for the biodiesel programme.Although trans-esterification of oils to produce biodiesel by conventional heating is a well-established method, it requires longer reaction times with higher energy inputs and losses to the ambient 22 , which result in the higher cost of biodiesel. Microwave-assisted trans-esterification, is, however, a relatively new, energy-efficient and quick technology to produce biodiesel from different feedstocks [23][24][25] . Patil et al. 24 produced biodiesel from Camelina sativa oil using different methods of heating such as conventional, supercritical and microwave. Among these, the microwave method proved to be superior due to its inherent advantages of shorter reaction time and lower energy requirements. Along with reducing the reaction time and increasing the biodiesel yield, the microwave method also significantly reduced the product separation time. The present study is focused on the utilization of inexpensive A. maxicana oil for biodiesel (ABD) synthesis using microwave energy...
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