This study provides the first evidence that human ILC2s can express CD154 and stimulate the production of IgE by B lymphocytes through IL-25/IL-33 stimulation or TLR triggering.

It is well accepted that Th17 cells are a highly plastic cell subset that can be easily directed toward the Th1 phenotype in vitro and also in vivo during inflammation. However, there is an ongoing debate regarding the reverse plasticity (conversion from Th1 to Th17). We show here that ectopic ROR-γt expression can restore or initiate IL-17 expression by non-classic or classic Th1 cells, respectively, while common pro-Th17 cytokine cocktails are ineffective. This stability of the Th1 phenotype is at least partially due to the presence of a molecular machinery governed by the transcription factor Eomes, which promotes IFN-γ secretion while inhibiting the expression of ROR-γt and IL-17. By using a mouse model of T cell-dependent colitis we demonstrate that Eomes controls non-classic Th1 cell development also in vivo and promotes their pathogenic potential. Eomes expression associates to a highly inflammatory phenotype also in patients with juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Indeed, it favors the acquisition of a cytotoxic signature, and promotes the development of IFN-γ GM-CSF cells that have been described to be pathogenic in chronic inflammatory disorders.

Even if omalizumab is broadly used in the treatment of severe, allergic asthma, the immunological effects in long-term treated patients have not been fully elucidated. To this aim, a cohort of 15 allergic asthmatic patients treated with omalizumab for at least three years was compared with 12 allergic asthma patients treated with standard therapy. Omalizumab treated asthmatic patients showed lower frequencies of circulating plasmacytoid DCs, and lower CD154 expression on CD4 T-helper cells than the control group. Moreover, basophils and DCs from omalizumab-treated patients had lower surface expression of IgE compared to the control group. In a longitudinal evaluation of two patients that started omalizumab treatment, we show that FcεRI free of IgE were evident on basophils just after four weeks of drug administration. Finally, in vitro experiments with basophils obtained from healthy donors confirm that omalizumab is able to detach IgE from high affinity IgE receptors. Collectively these data indicate that long-term omalizumab treatment dampens type 2 inflammation acting on different cell types that play a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of allergic asthma. Moreover, we have identified a further mechanism of action of omalizumab, such as the ability to detach IgE from its receptor.Keywords: asthma r basophils r FcεRI r IgE r omalizumab Additional supporting information may be found online in the Supporting Information section at the end of the article.

We recently demonstrated that human T-helper (Th) 17 cells, unlike Th1 cells, do not proliferate in response to T-cell receptor stimulation, mainly because of their reduced capacity to produce and respond to IL-2. In this study, we show that their lower responsiveness to IL-2 is due to the selective expression of Musculin (MSC), a member of the basic helix-loop-helix transcription factors. We show that MSC expression in human Th17 cells is retinoic acid orphan receptor (ROR)γt-dependent, and allows the upregulation of PPP2R2B, a regulatory member of the protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) enzyme. High PPP2R2B levels in human Th17 cells were responsible for the reduced STAT5B Ser-193 phosphorylation upon IL-2 signalling and, therefore, impaired STAT5B DNA binding and transcriptional activity on IL-2 target genes. PP2A, observed in Th17 cells, controls also STAT3, dephosphorylating Ser727, thus increasing its activity that plays a crucial role in Th17 development and/or maintenance. Thus, our findings identify an additional mechanism responsible for the limited expansion of human Th17 cells, and could provide a further explanation for the rarity of these cells in inflamed tissues.Keywords: IL-2 r Musculin r Proliferation r RORC r STAT5 r Th17Additional supporting information may be found in the online version of this article at the publisher's web-site Correspondence: Prof. Francesco Annunziato e-mail: francesco.annunziato@unifi.it IntroductionThe decision of a naïve CD4 + T-helper (Th) cell to acquire a particular effector phenotype is dictated by the cytokines produced by cells of the innate immunity in response to microbes and the consequent activation of transcription factors. In the presence of C 2017 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.eji-journal.eu 1428 Veronica Santarlasci et al. Eur. J. Immunol. 2017. 47: 1427-1442 IL-12, naïve T cells activate signal transducer and activator of transcription 4 (STAT4) and T-bet, which induce the production of IFN-γ (Th1 cells); in the presence of IL-4, naïve T cells activate STAT6 and GATA-3, which stimulate the production of IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 (Th2 cells); finally, in the presence of IL-1β and IL-23, naïve T cells activate STAT3 and retinoic acid orphan receptor (ROR)γt that allow them to produce IL-17 (Th17 cells). Th1 cells activate in turn macrophages, NK cells and B cells and play an important role in the protection against intracellular microbes, but they have also been thought to play a pathogenic role in autoimmune disorders. Th2 cells activate eosinophil granulocytes, mast cells, basophils, as well as the production of IgE by B cells, thus contributing to the protection against extracellular parasites, venoms and irritants, but they can also be responsible for atopic disorders. Th17 cells activate macrophages, B cells and also neutrophil granulocytes, thus favoring the protection against extracellular microbes. These cells seem to play an even more important pathogenic role than Th1 cells in autoimmune diseases [1]. However, despite their probably pow...

The reason why only few coeliac patients develop the cutaneous manifestation of the disease, named dermatitis herpetiformis (DH), is still unknown. Epidermal transglutaminase (TG3) has been described as the main autoantigen of humoral immunity in DH but the mechanisms leading to this autoimmune response remain obscure. Here we characterized T cells from skin, gut and peripheral blood of DH and coeliac disease (CD) patients, evaluated the impact of the gluten-free diet on circulating T lymphocytes’ phenotype and investigated antigen specific T cell response toward epidermal and tissue transglutaminase (TG2). DH patients showed an increased frequency of skin-derived T cells producing TNFα when compared to CD patients. Moreover, circulating T cells producing TNFα and IL-17A positively correlated with clinical score of skin disease activity and decreased after gluten-free diet. Finally, TG2 and TG3-specific T cells resulted more reactive to antigens stimulation in DH patients and showed cross reactivity toward the two autoantigens in both the group of patients. Our data suggest a role of TNFα and IL-17A producing cells in the development of DH and, for the first time, show the existence of a crossed T cell response toward the two transglutaminases isoforms, thus suggesting new insights on T cells role in skin damage.