Forest fragmentation has been found to affect biodiversity and ecosystem functioning in multiple ways. We asked whether forest size and isolation in fragmented woodlands influences the climate warming sensitivity of tree growth in the southern boreal forest of the Mongolian Larix sibirica forest steppe, a naturally fragmented woodland embedded in grassland, which is highly affected by warming, drought, and increasing anthropogenic forest destruction in recent time. We examined the influence of stand size and stand isolation on the growth performance of larch in forests of four different size classes located in a woodland-dominated forest-steppe area and small forest patches in a grassland-dominated area. We found increasing climate sensitivity and decreasing first-order autocorrelation of annual stemwood increment with decreasing stand size. Stemwood increment increased with previous year's June and August precipitation in the three smallest forest size classes, but not in the largest forests. In the grassland-dominated area, the tree growth dependence on summer rainfall was highest. Missing ring frequency has strongly increased since the 1970s in small, but not in large forests. In the grassland-dominated area, the increase was much greater than in the forest-dominated landscape. Forest regeneration decreased with decreasing stand size and was scarce or absent in the smallest forests. Our results suggest that the larch trees in small and isolated forest patches are far more susceptible to climate warming than in large continuous forests pointing to a grim future for the forests in this strongly warming region of the boreal forest that is also under high land use pressure.

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The forests of North Mongolia are largely dominated either by larch (Larix sibirica Ledeb.) or birch (Betula platyphylla Sukaczev). The increasing demand for timber and firewood is currently met by removal of wood from these forest stands. Therefore, silvicultural approaches that account for both utilization and protection are needed. Thinning trials were established in the research area Altansumber, in the mountain forest steppe west of the town of Darkhan. We analyzed the response of non-spatial and spatial structure and growth of birch and larch stands on thinning. Before thinning, spatial tree distribution was largely clumped. Thinning promoted regular tree distribution. Ingrowth of new stems after thinning tended to redirect stand structure towards clumping. Both relative and absolute tree growth and competition were evaluated before, directly after, and three years after the thinning. Competition played a significant role in tree growth before thinning. A reduction in competition after thinning triggered significantly increased growth of both birch and larch. The observed positive growth response was valid in absolute and relative terms. A methodically based forest management strategy, including thinning operations and selective cuttings, could be established, even under the harsh Mongolian conditions. Our findings could initiate the development of broader forest management guidelines for the light-taiga dominated stands.

Environmental factors play vital roles in successful plantation and cultivation of tree seedlings. This study focuses on problems associated with reforestation under extreme continental climatic conditions. The objectives were to assess relative seedling performance (survival and growth) with respect to plantation age, and to analyze the influence of specific climatic factors during the early stages of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) plantations. The study was carried out in reforested areas of the Tujyin Nars region of northern Mongolia on six Scots pine plantations ranging from 5 to 10 years. In each of the six plantations, five 900 m 2 permanent sample plots were established and survival rates and growth performance measured annually over 7 years. Results show high variation in survival among the plantations (p \ 0.001, F = 29.7). Seedling survival in the first year corresponded directly to the number of dry days in May. However, survival rate appeared to stabilize after the second year. The insignificant variation of height categories throughout the observation period indicated low competition among individuals. Two linear mixed-effect models show that height and radial growth were best explained by relative air humidity, which we consider to be a reliable indicator of site-specific water availability. Insufficient amounts and uneven distribution of rainfall pose a major threat during the first year of plantation establishment. Humidity and water availability are decisive factors for a successful seedling plantation. This highlights the impact of drought on forest plantations in northern Mongolia and the importance of developing climate resilient reforestation strategies.

Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) forests are one of the main vegetation types in the Asian forest-steppe zone. However, over-harvesting currently threatens the natural regeneration and sustainability of these forests. In this study, we examine the long-term effects of different logging intensities on soil properties and natural regeneration in a natural Scots pine forest in the West Khentii Mountains (Mongolia), 19 years after selective logging. Our experimental design included five treatments: clear cut (CC), treatments with high (HI), medium (MI), low (LI) intensities, and a reference parcel with no logging impact at all (RE). We described and quantified the harvest events and applied ANOVA and LMM modeling to analyze and explain the long-term impacts of the logging intensities on soil properties and natural regeneration. We found that logging has a significant negative influence on the physical and chemical properties of the soil because it increases soil compaction and reduces soil nutrients. The most critical impacts of logging were on soil bulk density, total porosity, organic matter, and total nitrogen and phosphorus. The LMM modeling showed that organic matter (OgM), total nitrogen (TN), available K (AK) and pH values are especially impacted by logging. Our study revealed that the values for all of these variables show a linear decrease with increasing selective logging intensity and have a level of significance of p < 0.05. Another finding of this study is that selective logging with low and medium intensities can promote natural regeneration of Scots pine to numbers above those of the reference site (RE). High intensity logging and clear-cuts, however, limit the regeneration of Scots pine, reduce overall seedling numbers (p < 0.05), and create conditions that are suitable only for the regeneration of deciduous tree species. This underlines the risk of Scots pine forest degradation, either by replacement by broad-leaf trees or by conversion into non-forest ecosystems.

Background: Forest area, stand quality and growth of Siberian larch in Mongolia have decreased significantly over recent decades. This forest decline is frequently attributed to factors such as unregulated logging, increased ecological disturbances (primarily fire) and climate change. In this study, we analyzed climate-growth response and pointer years for Siberian larch observed in the Altansumber forest research area in the Mongolian mountain forest steppe zone. We compare our results with previously published results of white birch from the same area. Methods: We built a reference chronology from wood core samples taken from 30 trees in three neighboring larch stands. Climate-growth relationships were analyzed monthly and seasonally over the period 1962-2009 using climate data from the Eroo weather station. Pointer year analysis covered the same time frame. Results: Our analysis of the larch chronology showed that precipitation during autumn of the previous year and directly before the growing season of the current year was the most decisive factor determining tree-ring growth. Regional pointer year analysis further indicated that a humid summer and autumn followed by a warm spring support current-year tree-ring growth in these larch stands. Our findings were comparable to a white birch study in the same area. The larch trees, however, showed stronger growth performance and were more tolerant of higher temperatures, notably in spring during peak fire season.Conclusions: Water availability is the decisive factor for larch growth in the mountain forest steppe zone. The chronologies showed no climatic indication of insect infestations. Differences in climate-growth relationships of birch and larch trees during peak fire season may to some degree be explained by their respective means of protecting themselves against low-intensity surface fires (e.g. thick bark of larch). These fire events occur regularly in the region and are influenced by climatic factors. Our analysis and comparison of climate tree-growth relationships may be valuable for developing climate-and disturbance-resilient forestry practices in Mongolian mountain forest ecosystems.

The post-thinning stand density and spacing in forest plantations influence individual tree growth and crown development, and the changes detected in dominant tree growth are a good indication of the thinning effect. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of different thinning intensities on diameter and height growth in a Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) plantation. The field measurements were carried out between 2016 and 2020 on a Scots pine plantation, growing in Selenge province of northern Mongolia. Following this, experimental thinnings were carried out with different intensities. Thinning treatments comprised thinning with very low, low, medium, and high intensities, as well as an unthinned control stand. Stem analyses were performed to calculate the annual and cumulative diameter, height, and volume growth. For tree crown measurements several parameters were analyzed: crown diameter, crown projection area, and crown index. A total of 300 trees (5 treatments à 3 replications à 20 dominant trees from each plot) were subjected to the comparative analyses. This study revealed that thinning showed a stronger positive effect on diameter and volume growth of dominant trees in the plantation. Our results showed a gradual increase in diameter, basal area, and volume growth depending on the thinning intensity. An ANOVA test for growth analyses of dominant trees showed a significant difference in diameter (p < 0.0001) and height (p < 0.0001) growth performance following experimental felling with different thinning intensities. Finally we elaborated linear mixed effect models (LMM) for tree growth between 2016 and 2020 of selected dominant trees. With the help of the LMM we analyzed and described the thinning impact on DBH, BA, height, volume and crown diameter. The models confirmed that higher thinning intensity triggered growth of the response variables except for height. A greater height growth was found in very low (10%) and low (15%) intensity treatments. Due to reduction of competition and optimization of the distance between individuals, thinnings contributed to a relatively faster development of the tree crown in radial directions. Based on our analysis results and comparative graphs representing post-thinning dominant tree growth in diameter, height, basal area, and volume, we recommend medium-(30%) and high-intensity (45%) thinnings as at the beginning stage of plantation establishment.

The establishment of forest plantations in boreal zones in Mongolia is important for wood production as well as carbon dioxide fixation. The present study aims to elucidate the juvenile wood properties (basic density, modulus of elasticity [MOE], modulus of rupture [MOR], and compressive strength parallel to grain) of plantation-grown Pinus sylvestris to promote the establishment of plantations. In addition, the effect of the radial growth rate on wood properties was also evaluated using a linear mixed-effects model. In the juvenile wood phase, wood properties were increased from the pith to bark side based on the results of model selections. Up to the 20th annual ring from the pith, the estimated mean values of basic density, MOE, MOR, and compressive strength were 0.40 g/cm3, 5.35 GPa, 65.1 MPa, and 28.4 MPa, respectively. Variance component ratios of growth categories were low in wood properties, with the exception of basic density, suggesting that the radial growth rate did not affect wood properties in the juvenile wood phase in this species growing in Mongolia. Based on the results obtained in the present study, we have concluded that although basic density in the faster growth category yielded relatively lower values, appropriate radial growth promotion during the initial stage of growth in P. sylvestris trees planted in Mongolia exerted no negative impact on juvenile wood properties. Keywords: annual ring width, basic density, compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, modulus of rupture