Research has shown that the distribution of springs in flysch areas is affected by complex determinants consisting of interdependent geological and morphological factors. The most important factor appears to be the layering of rocks relative to the slope of the given mountain, which affects both the number and discharge of springs. Some springs arise due to tectonic faults and fractures. In addition, the very presence of any slope positively affects the probability of the occurrence of a spring in a given area.
The aim of the study is to assess the capacity of the flysch aquifer feeding springs in the Outer Eastern Carpathians using spring recession curves. The four selected springs are located in an area generally believed to be poor in groundwater. However, the selected springs were characterized by remarkably high average discharge of 3.2–9.6 L s−1. Recession coefficients were estimated which enabled an aquifer capacity and groundwater residence time assessment. Despite similarities in elevation, precipitation, and lithology in the study area, a substantial variation in the recession coefficients and aquifer parameters was found. The average aquifer capacity of groundwater subsystems strongly varied in the small study area (4.9–49 m3 × 103). The mean groundwater residence time varied from 11 days to 50 days depending on the volume of groundwater drained by the springs. Differences in discharge, recession coefficients, groundwater capacity, and residence time were related to recharge areas of different size. Simple relationships between the topographic catchment areas of springs and their hydrologic parameters can become altered by local structural features: faults and fissures. The study demonstrates that tectonically produced structures may facilitate a larger supply of groundwater and the occurrence of high-discharge springs in a given area.
Spatial patterns in macroinvertebrate communities and some abiotic factors were examined in three rheocrene springs and their springbrooks (Kraków-Częstochowa Upland, southern Poland). The mean discharge of particular springs ranged from 5 to 11 L s −1 , and its annual fluctuations were small. Water temperature was very stable at all sampling sites. In the eucrenon the number of benthic taxa was the smallest (9-14 determined to the family level), but the densities were the highest (approx. 14000 ind. m −2 ). The biggest changes in macroinvertebrate composition were observed in the modified hypocrenon, which is an artificial pond. The lowest number of taxa were found in a natural, short springbrook with a nondiversified bottom substrate. The density of crenophilic taxa (Drusus trifidus, Dugesia gonocephala, Elmidae) diminished along the springbrooks, while the opposite trend was observed for ubiquitous taxa (some Oligochaeta, Asellus aquaticus and Chironomidae). Even in a very short natural springbrook (30 m), Drusus trifidus, the only species of Trichoptera found in the springs discussed here, goes through the entire development cycle. The strongest influence of a big river was observed at the outflow of one of the natural springbrooks, where the highest number of riverine oligochaete species were found. The benthic fauna of the springs studied here differed from that found in other springs in this area -the absence of the typical crenophilic species Bithynella austriaca (Gastropoda) and the presence of Gianus aquedulcis (Oligochaeta) may indicate the autonomy of the spring fauna in the Mstów area, possibly resulting from the postglacial geomorphological formation of this region or differences in habitat conditions.
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