Hairy roots of Dracocephalum moldavica L. were induced using Agrobacterium rhizogenes strain A4. Transformed roots were obtained from shoot explants with low transformation frequency of up to 3 %. The effects of different liquid media: Murashige and Skoog (MS), Gamborg et al. (B5) and Woody Plant (WP) with full-and half-strength ( MS, B5, WP), on biomass accumulation and rosmarinic acid (RA) content were investigated. The hairy roots were cultured in photoperiod (16 h light/8 h dark) and darkness. Biomass of D. moldavica hairy roots was the highest (7.23 g flask -1 of fresh weight and 0.89 g flask -1 of dry weight) in the cultures grown in WP medium under periodic light. Ultra performance liquid chromatography analysis revealed the highest RA content (78 mg g -1 dry wt) in roots cultured in B5 medium under photoperiod conditions. It was about tenfold higher compared to roots of field-grown mother plants. Antioxidant activities and total phenolic contents of methanolic extracts of D. moldavica hairy roots cultured in B5 and WP media under photoperiod and darkness and roots of field grown plants were compared. All extracts were investigated using 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) scavenging and phosphomolybdenum reduction assays. Total phenolic contents were estimated by the FolinCiocalteu method. The methanolic extract of D. moldavica hairy roots grown in B5 medium under photoperiod possessed the strongest effects on reducing Mo and DPPH radical scavenging. The activities were significantly higher (p B 0.05) than those of methanolic extract of roots of intact plants grown in the field. The most active methanolic extract of hairy roots was characterized by the highest level of rosmarinic acid and total content of phenolic compounds.
Sandalwood oils are highly desired but expensive, and hence many counterfeit oils are sold in high street shops. The study aimed to determine the content of oils sold under the name sandalwood oil and then compare their chromatographic profile and α- and β santalol content with the requirements of ISO 3518:2002. Gas chromatography with mass spectrometry analysis found that none of the six tested “sandalwood” oils met the ISO standard, especially in terms of α-santalol content. Only one sample was found to contain both α- and β-santalol, characteristic of Santalum album. In three samples, valerianol, elemol, eudesmol isomers, and caryophyllene dominated, indicating the presence of Amyris balsamifera oil. Another two oil samples were found to be synthetic mixtures: benzyl benzoate predominating in one, and synthetic alcohols, such as javanol, polysantol and ebanol, in the other. The product label only gave correct information in three cases: one sample containing Santalum album oil and two samples containing Amyris balsamifera oil. The synthetic samples described as 100% natural essential oil from sandalwood are particularly dangerous and misleading to the consumer. Moreover, the toxicological properties of javanol, polysantol and ebanol, for example, are unknown.
Until recently, pentabromodiphenyl (PentaBDE) and decabromodiphenyl (DecaBDE) ethers were commonly used as flame retardants in a wide array of products, mostly in the production of plastics utilized in the electric, electronic and textile industries. The aim of this study was to compare the toxicity of PentaBDE and DecaBDE after their repeated (7-28 days) intragastric administration to rats. The compounds were given at doses of 2, 8, 40 or 200 mg/kg/day (PentaBDE) and 10, 100 or 1,000 mg/kg/day (DecaBDE). The repeated administration of PentaBDE disturbed redox homeostasis, which was manifested by lower total antioxidant status and increased activity of glutathione reductase in serum and higher concentrations of glutathione reduced and malondialdehyde in the liver. The occurrence of these effects was not observed after DecaBDE administration. The results of histopathological examination showed fatty degeneration after administration of the highest dose of PentaBDE. The repeated administration of PentaBDE also caused the increase in relative liver mass, dose-dependent increase in the activity of CYP 1A (EROD) and CYP 2B (PROD), 7-12- and 2-8-fold, respectively, as well as enhanced level of CYP 1A1 (5-30-fold) and CYP 4A (2-4.5-fold). The administration of DecaBDE induced much less pronounced changes: a maximum 2.8-fold increase in the activity of CYP 1A, a twofold increase in CYP 2B, and no alterations in other parameters under study. Contrary to DecaBDE, PentaBDE disturbed redox homeostasis, and induced liver microsomal enzymes. Fatty degeneration in liver caused by this compound was also found.
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