Task‐based language teaching (TBLT) has received considerable attention in the field of second or foreign language teaching from both supporters and critics. Since its early stages in the late 1970s to early 1980s, one of the main challenges in using TBLT has been to incorporate its principles (focus on meaning and focus on form) into second language (L2) classrooms. One particular issue of contention found in the literature relates to the considerable criticism it has received as it encouraged learner fluency at the expense of accuracy. This chapter aims to describe how L2 researchers' views have changed over time, currently focusing mostly on how focus form can be distributed across pre‐ and post‐task stages. This chapter provides practical ideas for teachers to balance focus on meaning and focus on form in their L2 classrooms.
Listening requires a number of subskills such as discriminating segmental sounds in a word and interpreting suprasegmental features of pacing, intonation, and stress. When it comes to recognizing such characteristics in a second or foreign language, language learners' performance in listening tasks also depends on the nature and quality of the listening input, along with their familiarity with pragmatics, dialectal accents, background noise, slurred speech, features that change how words sound in a sentence. Some of these listening subskills are better acquired by younger age groups. Proponents of the critical period hypothesis claim that children have a neurological advantage in language acquisition and, as learners' age at the time of exposure increases, proficiency in the target language generally declines. Extensive listening, strategy training, input variety, speech perception and auditory training, and metacognitive instruction can help older learners overcome difficulties and improve L2 listening comprehension and performance.
The second language (L2) speech production system is conceptualized within the information‐processing model of human cognition. Depending on the learner's proficiency, the production of speech is a challenging and conscious process rather than a natural and automatic one. It involves risk to “face,” so planning, monitoring, and rehearsal may be extensively utilized to cope with the lack of linguistic resources. When students are given the chance to practice the L2 in meaningful situations, it creates opportunities to negotiate meaning and receive online feedback. This communicative interaction helps learners construct a store of concrete “exemplars” that include associations of form‐meaning mappings, which can later be recalled to produce novel utterances. Thus, students' interaction during classroom activities facilitates access to information they have previously learned, and they incorporate it with new information they receive as they perform the task, allowing for their interlanguage to evolve.
When professor Celce-Murcia retired in 2002, she was interviewed by IAL; back then she talked a little about her early studies and educational background, and about changes she had witnessed not only in the field of applied linguistics and teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL) but also within our department, with our newly created undergraduate minor in TESL -Teaching English as a Second Language. In addition, she outlined two of her most impressive works: The Grammar Book (co-authored with Diane Larsen-Freeman) and Teaching Pronunciation (co-authored with Janet Goodwin and Donna Brinton). But contrary to what one would expect, retiring for her did not mean going home victoriously at last, to find the long-deserved and inviting arms of Morpheus; after all, she had already greatly contributed to society with an impressive list of accomplishments and hallmark books that are still hailed as the best of their kind. Instead, it was just the beginning of a new set of challenges and projects. In this interview, Marianne addresses some of the projects and hardships that awaited her after her retirement, along with her unexpected appointment to serve as dean of English programs at the American University of Armenia, and the creation and co-editing of an innovative discourse-based ESL textbook series.Professor Emerita of Applied Linguistics & TESL at the University of California, Los Angeles, where she taught and mentored graduate students for thirty years, Marianne Celce-Murcia has published widely in the areas of language teaching methodology (including discourse-based approaches), the teaching of pronunciation, and pedagogical grammar. She has administered various TESOL related programs around the world, including the UCLA ESL Service Course pro-
No abstract
Previously, scientists thought that human brain development was genetically pre‐established, and that it would follow a biologically predetermined pathway as it grew. However, with the recent technological and scientific developments in brain research, scientists have observed that infants' early social and emotional experiences and interactions influence early brain development and how the pathways in the brain are wired. Research has shown that, like nutrients, establishing interactions with conspecifics and objects is vital for the developing brain, and having a variety of experiences causes the brain to develop in different ways. This entry examines current literature and discusses implications for early childhood development, suggesting it is a favorable time to expose a child to an L2.
scite is a Brooklyn-based organization that helps researchers better discover and understand research articles through Smart Citations–citations that display the context of the citation and describe whether the article provides supporting or contrasting evidence. scite is used by students and researchers from around the world and is funded in part by the National Science Foundation and the National Institute on Drug Abuse of the National Institutes of Health.
hi@scite.ai
10624 S. Eastern Ave., Ste. A-614
Henderson, NV 89052, USA
Copyright © 2024 scite LLC. All rights reserved.
Made with 💙 for researchers
Part of the Research Solutions Family.