Purpose – The purpose of this study is to propose a performance measurement (PM) model for agricultural extension agents. Based on an interdisciplinary approach, management accounting-agricultural extension, the study has three main research objectives: highlight the main concepts to be embedded in a PM model for agricultural extension agents in an agricultural extension organization (RO1); identify main PM components of the proposed PM model for agricultural extension agents (RO2); and investigate empirically the causal relationships in the proposed PM model (RO3). Design/methodology/approach – An interdisciplinary literature review and a proposed PM model for agricultural extension agents are presented (RO1 and RO2). An empirical survey is incorporated, carried out in early 2011 (RO3), to examine three groups, totaling around 274 respondents. Data were collected through personal interviews using structured questionnaire forms. Path analysis technique was applied. Findings – The authors propose a PM model consisting of five components. The five components are: agricultural extension agents’ characteristics, agents’ work attitudes, services provided, use of agricultural extension services and farmers’ satisfaction with agricultural extension services. The overall findings of the empirical surveys were found to validate the suggested causal relations among the components of the model. Findings indicate that 85 per cent of changes in farmers’ satisfaction with services are explained by changes in the preceding variables in the model. Research limitations/implications – It is, however, important to view this study with a few limitations in mind; for instance, using a survey method (e.g. sampling and the use of questionnaires in data collection); and the constraints associated with the model. That is to say that the components of the model could be further increased to incorporate other aspects of stakeholders, e.g. the economic impact of governmental financial policies on tax and the customs duties on agricultural products. Practical implications – A Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations agricultural extension reference manual recommends certain purposes for a PM in agricultural extension organizations; interestingly, all these are already embedded in the proposed PM model, which makes it unequivocally a useful PM model for agriculture extension agents in agricultural extension organizations worldwide. Furthermore, the proposed model contributes significantly to agricultural extension practitioners and academics alike. It focuses the attention of agricultural extension organizations on the causal relationships among the model’s components. These components are linked to the agricultural extension organization strategies. Social implications – In addition to the practical implications above, the proposed PM model demonstrates the need for placing equal importance on all five components included and setting performance indicator (PI) targets. Originality/value – The importance of this study emerges from the fact that it is helpful to examine the development and implementation of PM models across various disciplines to enhance understanding. The PM model overcomes the shortcomings in previous PM models of agricultural extension agents’ criteria/models in the agricultural extension literature. It is not merely a theoretically proposed model because the proposed causal relations amongst its variables are empirically investigated. Following management accounting and strategy theories, the authors propose that the relative importance of the attributes of PI in the proposed model differs according to each agricultural extension organization’s strategy, size and organizational structure.

This paper aims at estimating the trend of climate change and examining its effect on agriculture in Egypt. The study focused on the changes in air temperature and rainfall. The monthly time series data was obtained from the World Bank Group Climate Change Knowledge Portal on temperature and rainfall for the period of 1991-2015. Time series and regression analysis were applied for data analysis. Seasonal variations in air temperature and rainfall through the study period were examined. The study relied on the previous research and personal interviews with some experts in the field to know the effect of climate change on agriculture in Egypt. Results showed fluctuations and an increase in the air temperature for all the twelve months of the study period. Seasonal variations and a decline in the rainfall were found particularly in the month of June. The future effect of these changes on the Egyptian agriculture was presented in this study. Also, adaptation and mitigation practices to climate change were described. The role of agricultural extension and the need for effective extension services to reduce the effects of this phenomenon on agriculture in Egypt was emphasized.

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This paper is a review article. It depended on information obtained from secondary sources (books and scientific journals). The main purposes of this paper were to: review the definition of extension approach and present various types of agricultural extension approaches defined by researchers, determine attributes of the effective agricultural extension approach and qualities and necessary conditions for this approach, review different methodologies used to measuring the effectiveness of agricultural extension approaches, propose  determinants of the effectiveness measurement of extension approaches, and finally to present the application of extension approaches in Egypt.

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