The oil and petrochemical industries have unquestionably been key drivers in the development of the complex, modern world we live in. They have helped power our cities, transport our goods and provided the raw materials for the development of countless pharmaceuticals, dyes, plastics and consumer products. In fact, many of the advances made in general health, and in improved living standards around the world, can be traced to the wealth generated by the oil industry. However, while few recognise this contribution, many people do worry about the risks posed by the search for, and exploitation of, hydrocarbon deposits. Indeed, despite its importance, the oil industry has, to some extent, been "demon-ized" by certain groups and subjected to disproportionate criticism. However, while the industry has a generally good pollution record, when compared to other major businesses, there is no room for complacency. Oil itself is usually perceived to be the biggest acute environmental threat, due largely to the volumes involved in occasional, highly-publicised spills and their distressing effects on wildlife. On the upstream side of the supply chain, the escape of oil is still a risk but, in addition, there are many wellsite operations that involve the use of chemical additives. In common with many industrial chemicals, some of these materials are toxic and some may not biodegrade at acceptable rates. With an increasing awareness of the potential environmental impact of chemical additives, particularly in the marine environment, there is a continuing need to develop more efficient, less toxic alternatives. We have been actively pursuing this goal since the early 1990's, replacing many additives with environmentally-friendly alternatives. This has been achieved by combining our knowledge of structure-activity relationships with our knowledge of polymer, surfactant and solvent chemistry and ecotoxicology. As a result of these efforts, many potentially harmful chemicals have been removed from active service and replaced with new, field-proven and eco-friendly systems that have been tested in accordance with OSPARCOM guidelines, or their equivalents. Use of such materials offers benefits in terms of health and safety and, ultimately, potential cost reductions when disposal and waste handling charges are factored in. Use of appropriate materials can even improve job results, as witnessed by several operators, and helps to demonstrate what can be achieved when a commitment to "green" principles is made. However, it should be recognised that there are inevitable development costs in the design, testing and manufacture of new additives. Operating companies need to give due consideration to encouraging and rewarding those suppliers and service companies who, ultimately, help them comply with current and future pollution-control regulations. Introduction There can be little doubt, in the public mind, that oil represents one of the most acute threats to the environment. Its commercial exploitation involves tapping reservoirs capable of producing at the prodigious rates needed to supply worldwide consumers. Also, being a major world commodity, whose source is often far-removed from the end-user, it is transported around the globe in vast quantities. Thus, any serious accident tends to involve discharge of substantial amounts of oil. The aftermath of such events, as portrayed by the media, is particularly harrowing - oil -soaked marine mammals, pathetic sea birds, dead fish and a blackened, uninhabitable coastline. The Exxon Valdez tanker accident in Alaska in March, 1989 is one of those incidents that springs to mind or, perhaps, the deliberate release of oil into the Arabian Gulf and the systematic destruction of wellhead control equipment by retreating Iraqi forces at the end of the Gulf war. But there are many earlier instances that have caught the world's attention. The Torey Canyon and the Amoco Cadiz, were two tankers that sank in, or around, the English Channel (actually off the Brittany coast) in 1968 and 1978, respectively. The fact that they are still remembered demonstrates the long-term ability of such events to shock us when we see the appalling effects that oil can have on the environment. The Torey Canyon was carrying 120,000 tonnes of crude oil, the Amoco Cadiz, 223,000 tonnes.
TX 75083-3836, U.S.A., fax 01-972-952-9435. AbstractIt is well known that increasing the ionic strength of aqueous solutions containing certain categories of anionic surfactant can produce interesting behaviors. The molecules of some surfactants cluster together forming spherical micelles. However, a select few surfactants, with particular molecular structure, undergo a remarkable transition from spherical micelles to larger, anisometric aggregates. The size, flexibility and extent of interaction of these aggregates all have an influence on the rheological properties of such solutions, producing very substantial viscosities at low shear rates.Conversely, when these surfactant solutions encounter other chemical species, particularly relatively non-polar materials, like alcohols, glycols and hydrocarbons, this affects the shape and structure of the micelles. As a result, the phase behavior is altered and the solution undergoes a dramatic reduction in viscosity.Proper selection of a surfactant allows its application in several oil field treatments such as reservoir gravel packing, frac-packing, fracturing, brine thickening, non-damaging temporary plugs and also for reservoir flooding and water shut-off.The main advantage of these solutions, compared to conventional polymer systems, is the potential for reduced formation and proppant pack damage. However, there are many other advantages. These fluids exhibit unexpectedly low high-shear viscosities resulting in low friction pressures, even in small tubular. In addition, due to the very low viscosity of the broken fluid, faster load recovery of injected fluids is possible. A final benefit offered by these systems is operational simplicity at the well site, since there is no need to "pre-gel" tanks ahead of the treatment. This paper describes the chemistry involved to develop these viscous solutions and their applications in different treatments in the field.
TX 75083-3836, U.S.A., fax 01-972-952-9435. AbstractMany wells are damaged in the course of drilling and workover by the use of drilling muds, drill-in fluids, and killpills that contain, amongst other things, polymeric
We are fortunate to live in a world where awareness of the detrimental effects of pollution is on the increase. Such awareness will help ensure protection of the biosphere and safeguard future generations. The oil and petrochemical industries, which have been responsible, to a large extent, for the development of the modern world and vast improvements in living standards in many places, are often targeted mercilessly by environmental activists. This is done without due regard to the criticality of oil both as a fuel and as the fundamental raw material for countless pharmaceuticals, dyes, plastics and consumer products. In general, despite press reports to the contrary, our industry has a fairly good pollution record, when compared to other major businesses. However, there is no room for complacency and it is important that we continue to be proactive in the implementation of strict environmental controls. Oil itself is usually perceived to be the biggest acute environmental threat, but, in addition, there are many well construction and workover operations that involve the use of chemical additives. Some of these materials are toxic and some may not biodegrade at acceptable rates. With an increasing awareness of the potential environmental impact of chemical additives, particularly in the marine environment, there is a continuing need to develop more efficient, less toxic alternatives. Thanks to intense efforts, many potentially harmful chemicals have already been removed from active service and replaced with new, field-proven and eco-friendly systems that have been tested in accordance with OSPARCOM guidelines, or their equivalents. Use of such materials offers benefits in terms of health and safety and, ultimately, potential cost reductions when disposal and waste handling charges are factored in. This paper reviews the development and field application of several novel materials for well completion and stimulation and suggests ways to improve or accelerate the implementation of environmental strategies. Introduction The population of the world exceeded 6 billion during the year 20011. This number falls far below the population growth projections made by prophets of doom back as early as the 18th century but it is, nonetheless, a formidable number of people. All of these people need food, water and other resources, including energy supplies. They also produce substantial quantities of waste, some organic and easily recyclable, but a variable and increasing portion of this waste must be treated on an industrial scale to render it suitable for discharge to the environment. In the so-called developed world, the industrial revolution provided the impetus for the rapid implementation of labour-saving technologies and the widespread introduction of machines. The economies of scale and efficiencies made possible by these machines were key elements in the dramatic improvements in health and living standards that are taken for granted today, in many parts of the world. These same improved standards have also given us the unprecedented opportunity to take stock of the impact we, as a species, are having on the planet we inhabit. For the fortunate minority, life is no longer a hard-scrabble struggle to survive so it is not surprising that these should be increasing recognition of the potentially detrimental effects of some of our activities. Environmental groups have raised many questions about various industries and the processes used in the manufacture of goods and the provision of services. As a result of pressure from such groups, numerous materials that are injurious to health, or toxic to the environment, have been identified and their use forbidden, or severely curtailed.
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