CD82, also known as KAI1, was recently identified as a prostate cancer metastasis suppressor gene on human chromosome 11p1.2 (ref. 1). The product of CD82 is KAI1, a 40- to 75-kDa tetraspanin cell-surface protein also known as the leukocyte cell-surface marker CD82 (refs. 1,2). Downregulation of KAI1 has been found to be clinically associated with metastatic progression in a variety of cancers, whereas overexpression of CD82 specifically suppresses tumor metastasis in various animal models. To define the mechanism of action of KAI1, we used a yeast two-hybrid screen and identified an endothelial cell-surface protein, DARC (also known as gp-Fy), as an interacting partner of KAI1. Our results indicate that the cancer cells expressing KAI1 attach to vascular endothelial cells through direct interaction between KAI1 and DARC, and that this interaction leads to inhibition of tumor cell proliferation and induction of senescence by modulating the expression of TBX2 and p21. Furthermore, the metastasis-suppression activity of KAI1 was significantly compromised in DARC knockout mice, whereas KAI1 completely abrogated pulmonary metastasis in wild-type and heterozygous littermates. These results provide direct evidence that DARC is essential for the function of CD82 as a suppressor of metastasis.

ABSTRACTcDNA clones encoding the major subunit of the Duffy blood group were isolated from a human bone marrow cDNA library using a PCR-amplifled DNA anti-Duffy murine monoclonal antibody reacted with a synthetic peptide deduced from the cDNA clone. Hydropathy analysis suggested the presence of9 membrane-spanning a-helices. In bone marrow RNA blot analysis, the gpD cDNA detected.a 1.27-kb mRNA in Duffy-positive but not in Duffynegative individuals. It also identified the same size mRNA in adult kidney, adult spleen, and fetal liver; in brain, it detected a prominent 8.5-kb and a minor 2.2-kb mRNA. In Southern blot analysis, gpD cDNA identified a single gene in Duffypositive and -negative individuals. Duffy-negative individuals, therefore, have the gpD gene, but it is not expressed in bone marrow. The same or a similar gene is active in adult kidney, adult spleen, and fetal liver of Duffy-positive individuals. Whether this is true in Duffy-negative individuals remains to be demonstrated. A GenBank sequence search yielded a significant protein sequence homology to human and rabbit interleukin-8 receptors.

It has been shown that microarray technology can be used to type DNA and detect new alleles in donor cohorts.

SummaryPlasmodium vivax and the related simian malarial parasite P. knowlesi use the DuffT blood group antigen as a receptor to invade human erythrocytes and region II of the parasite ligands for binding to this erythrocyte receptor. Here, we identify the peptide within the Duffy blood group antigen of human and rhesus erythrocytes to which the P. vivax and P. knowlesi ligands bind. Peptides from the NH2-terminal extracellular region of the Duffy antigen were tested for their ability to block the binding of erythrocytes to transfected Cos cells expressing on their surface region II of the Duffy-binding ligands. The binding site on the human Duffy antigen used by both the P. vivax and P. knowlesi ligands maps to a 35-amino acid region. A 34-amino acid peptide from the equivalent region of the rhesus Duffy antigen blocked the binding of P. vivax to human erythrocytes, although the P. vivax ligand expressed on Cos cells does not bind rhesus erythrocytes. The binding of the rhesus peptide, but not the rhesus erythrocyte, to the P. vivax ligand was explained by interference of carbohydrate with the binding process. Rhesus erythrocytes, treated with N-glycanase, bound specifically to P. vivax region II. Thus, the interaction of P. vivax ligand with human and rhesus erythrocytes appears to be mediated by a peptide-peptide interaction. Glycosylation of the rhesus Duffy antigen appears to block binding of the P. vivax ligand to rhesus erythrocytes.

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Reduced Duffy expression can result from mutations affecting transcription (mutated GATA box in one allele) or instability of the translated protein (Arg89Cys). The frequencies of these mutations vary among populations.

All of the antigenic determinants of the Duffy blood group system are in a glycoprotein (gp-Fy), which is encoded by a single-copy gene (FY) located on chromosome 1. gp-Fy is also produced in several cell types, including endothelial cells of capillary and postcapillary venules, the epithelial cell of kidney collecting ducts, lung alveoli, and the Purkinje cells of the cerebellum. This protein, which spans the cell membrane seven times, is a member of the superfamily of chemokine receptors and a malarial parasite receptor. The mouse Duffy gene (Dfy) homolog of human FY is also a single-copy gene, which maps in a region of conserved synteny with FY and produces a glycoprotein with 60% homology to the human protein. The mouse Duffy-like protein also binds chemokines. To study the biological role of gp-Fy, we generated a mouse strain in which Dfy was deleted. These homozygous Dfy ؊/؊ mice were indistinguishable in size, development, and health from wild-type and heterozygous littermates. We also examined components of the immune system and found no differences in lymph nodes or peripheral blood leukocyte levels between knockout and wild-type mice. The gross and histological anatomy of the thymus, spleen, lung, and brain showed no significant differences between mutants and wild-type mice. There was no indication of an overall difference between the knockout and wild-type mice in systematic neurological examinations. The only significant difference between Dfy ؊/؊ and Dfy ؉/؉ mice that we found was in neutrophil migration in peritoneal inflammations induced by lipopolysaccharide and thioglycolate. In mice homozygous for the deletion, there was less neutrophil recruitment into the peritoneal cavity and neutrophil influx in the intestines and lungs than in wild-type mice. Despite this, the susceptibility to Staphylococcus aureus infection was the same in the absence and in the presence of gp-Fy. Our results indicate that gp-Fy is functionally a redundant protein that may participate in the neutrophil migratory process.

The coding and untranslated flanking sequences of Duffy gene (FY) in humans and simians are in a single exon. The difference between the two codominant alleles, FY*A and FY*B, is a single change at nucleotide 306: guanidine is in FY*A and adenine is in FY*B. This produces a codon change that subsequently modifies the amino acid at position 43 of gpFy, the major subunit of the Duffy blood group protein complex. The glycine at this position in antigen Fya exchanges with aspartic acid in antigen Fyb. The guanidine at nucleotide 306 creates an additional Ban I restriction site in FY*A. Ban I digestion of DNA-PCR amplified products of FY*B and FY*A yields three and four fragments, respectively. Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) studies show that Fy(a+b-) and Fy(a-b+) whites are FY homozygous, that most Fy(a-b-) blacks have FY*B, and most Fy(a+b-) blacks are FY*A/FY*B heterozygous. In the black population a silent FY*B is very common, but a silent FY*A has not been found yet. On RNA blot analysis, the gpFy cDNA clone detected mRNA in the lung, spleen, and colon but not in the bone marrow of Duffy-negative individuals. Therefore, there is no null phenotype in Fy(a-b-) blacks. The gpFy homology between human and chimpanzee is 99% with a single residue change at position 116 (valine to isoleucine), whereas a 94% homology is found in squirrel and rhesus monkeys, and there is a 93% homology in aotus monkey when compared with humans. The N-terminal exocellular domain of simian gpFy helps to identify a set of amino acids critical for antibody and malarial parasite specificities.