A dequate learning capability is essential for survival and social adaptation of human, animals and birds. Young animals must learn many things rapidly such as escaping from predators (Heckman, 2007). Hence, learning impairment by neurodegenerative disease such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) may threaten animal life. Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an irreversible, progressive neurodegenerative disorder which characterized by learning and memory impairments which caused by diminished level of acetylcholine, reduced biogenic amines, increased oxidative stress and antioxidant enzyme disturbance. In addition it characterized pathologically by brain size reduction, degeneration and death of hippocampal neurons, aggregations of senile amyloid plaques and tau proteins (Dobhal et al., 2013; Yin et al., 2013; Haider et al., 2014). Several In vivo studies were performed to assess the potential role of metals in the pathogenesis of AD, where an increase in aluminium (Al3+) and other metals concentrations were detected in several brain areas of rats administered aluminium chloride for six months (Fattoretti et al., 2004).
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease that is characterized by memory loss, changes in behavior, and avoidance of social bonds. Aluminum is one of the main risk factors in the development of AD. Spirulina platensis (SP) is a microalga that improves motor and cognitive skills and prevents cerebral endothelial damage. SP could be delivered in a more controlled and targeted manner using nanoparticles like niosomes. The purpose of this research was to develop a SP-loaded niosome (SPLN) formulation as a drug delivery system to investigate the effectiveness and toxicity of SP as an AD therapy using the AlCl3-induced AD rat model. A niosomal formulation that consists of Tween 60, cholesterol, and dihexadecyl phosphate in a molar ratio of 1:2:0.1 was chosen as an optimum formulation. AD was induced in rats by orally administering AlCl3. Compared with the AlCl3 control, the group treated with the SPLN formulation showed enhancement of the recognition and working memories by increasing the difference score, the discrimination ratio, and the spontaneous alternation behavior. Additionally, it revealed a significant increase in AchE genes, restored the reduced brain neurotransmitters, and improved brain oxidative status. In conclusion, SPLN formulation could be considered an effective AD therapy.
Graphical Abstract
Background
Animal models are used to provide an adequate investigation of brain-behaviour, physiological and path physiological relationships to give insight into human behaviour and the underlying processes of drugs affecting the nervous system. Scopolamine; SCO (alkaloid l-(2)-scopolamine [l-(2)-hyoscine]) has a competitive inhibitory effect on muscarinic receptors for acetylcholine. Thus, this study was designated to investigate the effect of long-term SCO treatment on locomotor, exploratory and anxiety-like behaviours of rats using open field test.
Results
The long-term SCO treatment induced a prominent increase in locomotion (hyperactivity) and exploratory behaviour of rats. In addition, anxiety-like behavioural patterns showed a non-significant difference in SCO treated compared to control. Serotonin level was significantly decreased in the scopolamine treated group in comparison with the control group.
Conclusions
Data suggested that long-term SCO treatment resulted in marked neurobehavioural alterations in a rat as an animal model.
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