An efficient protein extraction method is crucial to ensure successful separation by two-dimensional electrophoresis (2-DE) for recalcitrant plant species, in particular for grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.). Trichloroacetic acid-acetone (TCA-acetone) and phenol extraction methods were evaluated for proteome analysis of leaves and roots from the Tunisian cultivar 'Razegui'. The phenol-based protocol proved to give a higher protein yield, a greater spot resolution, and a minimal streaking on 2-DE gels for both leaf and root tissues compared with the TCA-based protocol. Furthermore, the highest numbers of detected proteins on 2-DE gels were observed using the phenol extraction from leaves and roots as compared with TCA-acetone extraction.
Proteomic and transcriptomic analyses of pathogenesis-related proteins, PR10, were carried out by subjecting adult plants of the salt-tolerant grapevine cv. Razegui to 100 mM NaCl for 6 and 24 h under controlled greenhouse conditions. Within 6 h of salt exposure, an increase in levels of RzPR10 was observed in the roots. PR10 mRNA levels in leaves were significantly different than those in roots; moreover, significant differences for mRNA levels were found between treated and control plants. Within 24 h of salt treatment, roots exhibited the highest levels of RzPR10 protein, but no differences were observed for mRNA levels in both leaves and roots. Overexpression of Vvpr10 cDNA, under the control of the Gal promoter, in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae revealed that growth of transformed cells on a minimal medium containing 500 mM NaCl is similar to that of cells cultivated on NaCl-free medium. This indicated that Vvpr10 gene was functional in yeast and conferred tolerance to high salt concentrations.
Purpose
The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of income and geographic diversification on the double bottom line of microfinance institutions (MFIs) in Middle East and North Africa (MENA) countries where conventional and Islamic MFIs coexist. The idea is to explore whether diversification impacts MFIs' financial performance and outreach differ for Islamic microfinance.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors test the effect of diversification and business models of MFIs on their performance and poverty outreach. The authors’ data set is an unbalanced panel sample of 81 (Islamic and conventional) MFIs in MENA countries covering 1999–2018, comprising 743 MFI-year observations.
Findings
The authors find that increasing income diversification in microfinance and focusing on rural areas decreases the financial performance of MFIs in MENA countries. Islamic MFIs benefit from income diversification by increasing their financial performance. The results provide evidence of a nonlinear relationship between income diversification and the financial performance of MFIs. Although conventional MFIs improve their depth of outreach by diversifying their income, Islamic MFIs have a lower breadth of outreach because they show a higher degree of income diversification.
Practical implications
This research contributes to the ongoing debate of whether MFIs should focus on or diversify their services to Islamic microfinance. Therefore, the findings of this study are practically crucial for MFIs' stakeholders to understand the contribution of diversification strategies in improving the Islamic MFIs to achieve both financial and social objectives.
Originality/value
To the best of the authors’ knowledge, it is the first research that addresses the impact of diversification strategies in Islamic microfinance. Additionally, using a panel data set of conventional and Islamic MFIs in MENA countries spanning 1999–2018, this study provides empirical evidence on the diversification versus focus issue from the microfinance industry and the subset of Islamic microfinance.
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