Although a variety of factors influence student success in school, teachers have a major impact on the probability of that success (Stronge, Ward, & Grant, 2011). For example, Rockoff (2004) reported that a 1 SD increase in teacher quality raises test scores by approximately 0.20 SDs in reading and 0.24 SDs in math. Furthermore, Chetty, Friedman, and Rockoff (2011) found that raising the quality of teaching, based on value-added scores, from the bottom 5% to just average raises predicted student lifetime income by US$250,000. Considered within these analyses are a broad array of teacher and classroom characteristics ranging from teacher enthusiasm and caring to the use of classroom management. Across studies, control of the classroom environment in terms of clearly stated expectations, consistent routines, and efficient use of time, which are critical components of effective classroom management (Conroy, Alter, & Sutherland, 2014), significantly predict higher student achievement (Fidler, 2002; Stronge et al., 2011; Stronge, Ward, Tucker, & Hindman, 2008). Clearly, classroom management is positively associated with student outcomes. What is not so clear is the degree to which specific teacher classroom management practices impact student success. Predicting Student Success An analysis of teacher behaviors is best initiated with consideration of those student behaviors that are known to be associated with success and then working backward in terms of identifying teacher behaviors that provide high probabilities for those student behaviors. Any such analysis leads quickly to student engagement, perhaps the sin qua non of successful students (e.g., Berliner, 1990; Greenwood, Horton, & Utley, 2002). As David Berliner (1990) put it, the relationship between academic engaged time and student achievement "has the same scientific status as the concept of homeostasis in biology, reinforcement in psychology, and gravity in physics" (p. 3). As such, more engagement is 714809B HDXXX10.

Research indicates that increasing teacher-directed opportunities to respond (TD-OTR) positively impacts student outcomes. Prior reviews of the empirical literature focused on outcomes for students with emotional behavioral disorders or on TD-OTRs as one of many classroom-management practices; however, prior reviews did not examine effects of TD-OTRs solely within the class-wide context. For the present review, we (a) examined class-wide TD-OTR research (i.e., screened a total of 527 unique abstracts and identified, reviewed, and coded 15 empirical studies); (b) summarized the effects of class-wide TD-OTRs on student behavioral and academic outcomes, including differential impacts by modality; and (c) described the rates of TD-OTRs documented in the literature. Results are consistent with prior reviews, supporting positive behavioral and academic student outcomes when class-wide TD-OTRs are increased, and extend the literature by identifying differential outcomes by modality and describing observed and desired rates of TD-OTR delivery.

Effective classroom management skills are essential for teachers. Unfortunately, many teachers do not receive adequate classroom management training prior to beginning their teaching careers and feel unprepared for the demands of managing student behaviors in their classrooms. In this article, we describe (a) the number of states with state policy that requires pre-service teachers to receive instruction in evidence-based classroom management practices and (b) the extent to which teacher preparation programs provide this instruction for pre-service teachers. The results of this review indicate that although effective classroom management practices have been identified, a significant gap exists between the effective classroom management research base and requirements for teacher training. As a result, many pre-service teachers may not be prepared to effectively manage student behavior upon completion of a teacher preparation program due to a lack of exposure to classroom management content.

Research suggests that PD is ineffective without sustained and significant support and follow-up (Fixsen, Naoom, Blase, Friedman, & Wallace, 2005), defined as 30 or more direct contact hours with each teacher (Yoon et al., 2007). A number of successful classroom and behavior management PD programs that include approximately 30 or more hours of direct contact have been developed and evaluated, demonstrating successful adult behavior change. For example, Hemmeter, Snyder, Fox, and Algina (2016) evaluated the implementation of the Pyramid Model for Promoting Young Children's Social-Emotional Competence, a behavior management program for young children. Teachers received almost 20 hr of workshops and an average of 13 practicebased coaching sessions, each including almost 2 hr of observation and 45 min of debriefing. Teachers who received 693568P BIXXX10.

Many teachers enter the field without sufficient training in classroom management and continue to experience challenges throughout their careers. Therefore, school-based leaders need a multi-tiered support (MTS) framework to (a) provide training to all teachers in classroom management (Tier 1), (b) identify teachers who require additional assistance (universal screening), (c) support the identified teachers (Tiers 2 and 3), and (d) continue to monitor teachers’ classroom management to adjust (i.e., intensify or fade) supports. In this article, we describe key features of the MTS continuum of intervention and assessment and present a case study to illustrate implementation of some components of the framework with four middle school teachers.