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The surface of Lactobacillus rhamnosus strain GG (LGG) has previously been shown to bind aflatoxin B(1) (AFB(1)) effectively, it being a food-borne carcinogen produced by certain species of Aspergillus fungi. To establish which components of the cell envelope are involved in the AFB(1) binding process, exopolysaccharides and a cell wall isolate containing peptidoglycan were extracted from LGG and its AFB(1) binding properties were tested. LGG was also subjected to various enzymatic and chemical treatments and their effects on the binding of AFB(1) by LGG were examined. No evidence was found for exopolysaccharides, cell wall proteins, Ca(2+) or Mg(2+) being involved in AFB(1) binding. The AFB(1) binding activity of the cell wall isolate indicates that AFB(1) binds to the cell wall peptidoglycan of LGG or compounds tightly associated with the peptidoglycan.

Human mucus was isolated from faecal samples of newborns, two and six month old infants and adults. The adhesion to this mucus by the bacteria mentioned below was assessed in vitro. Depending on the age group: 44-46% of the applied Lactobacillus GG, 23-30% of Bifidobacterium lactis Bb-12, 9-14% of Lactobacillus johnsonii LJ-1, 3-10% of Lactobacillus salivarius LM2-118, Lactobacillus crispatus M247, Lactobacillus paracasei F19 and 2% of L. crispatus Mu5 adhered. All the strains adhered better to the mucus of adults than to that of infants. With some of the strains significant differences between the infant age groups were also observed. In conclusion, the age of the target group may be worthy of consideration when planning a schedule for probiotic or functional food therapy.

The intestinal tract performs many different functions; in addition to absorption and digestion it is also the body's largest organ of host defence. Part of the intestinal mucosal barrier function is formed by a common mucosal immune system which provides communication between the different mucosal surfaces of the body. The intestine also contains a microbial ecosystem with a large body of microbes, 1-11/2 kg in an adult. The microbes and their activity have a major impact on the development and functioning of the intestinal immune system and vice versa. This mutual influence also affects the host beyond the intestine. The intestinal colonisation with a balanced microflora is of main importance for the correct development of the immune system. The importance of the intestinal microflora is most clearly seen in germfree animals, but also diseases like atopy are associated with disturbances in the intestinal microflora. This often manifests itself in a low number of bifidobacteria. The use of probiotics or prebiotics to correct this imbalance and modulate the immune activity has received increasing scientific documentation. The precise mechanisms behind these immune modulatory activities are not well understood and require further investigation.

Still relevant after 19 years, the FAO/WHO definition of probiotics can be translated into four simple and pragmatic criteria allowing one to conclude if specific strains of microorganisms qualify as a probiotic for use in foods and dietary supplements. Probiotic strains must be (i) sufficiently characterized; (ii) safe for the intended use; (iii) supported by at least one positive human clinical trial conducted according to generally accepted scientific standards or as per recommendations and provisions of local/national authorities when applicable; and (iv) alive in the product at an efficacious dose throughout shelf life. We provide clarity and detail how each of these four criteria can be assessed. The wide adoption of these criteria is necessary to ensure the proper use of the word probiotic in scientific publications, on product labels, and in communications with regulators and the general public.

Objective To evaluate the effects of Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis HN019 (HN019) on clinical periodontal parameters (plaque accumulation and gingival bleeding), on immunocompetence of gingival tissues [expression of beta-defensin (BD)-3, toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), cluster of differentiation(CD)-57 and CD-4], and on immunological properties of saliva (IgA levels) in non-surgical periodontal therapy in generalized chronic periodontitis (GCP) patients. Adhesion to buccal epithelial cells (BEC) and the antimicrobial properties of HN019 were also investigated. Materials and methods Thirty patients were recruited and monitored clinically at baseline (before scaling and root planing-SRP) and after 30 and 90 days. Patients were randomly assigned to Test (SRP +Probiotic, n = 15) or Control (SRP+Placebo, n = 15) group. Probiotic lozenges were used for 30 days. Gingival tissues and saliva were immunologically analyzed. The adhesion of HN019 with or without Porphyromonas gingivalis in BEC and its antimicrobial properties were investigated in in vitro assays. Data were statistically analyzed (p<0.05). Results Test group presented lower plaque index (30 days) and lower marginal gingival bleeding (90 days) when compared with Control group. Higher BD-3, TLR4 and CD-4 expressions were

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A considerable part of the Western population suffers from some form of allergy, and the incidence is still rising with no sign of an end to this trend. Reduced exposure to microbial allergens as a result of our hygienic lifestyle has been suggested as one of the possible causes. It has also been suggested that probiotics may provide safe alternative microbial stimulation needed for the developing immune system in infants. This idea is supported by the fact that allergic infants have been observed to have an aberrant intestinal microbiota. They were shown to have more clostridia and fewer bifidobacteria and, in addition, to have an adult-like Bifidobacterium microbiota. Clinical trials have shown that the standard treatment of infants with atopic eczema, extensively hydrolyzed infant formula, can be significantly improved through the addition of Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG or Bifidobacterium lactis Bb-12. It has also been shown possible to halve the incidence of allergy in at-risk infants through administration of L. rhamnosus GG to expecting mothers and subsequently to their infants during the first half-year of life. Many mechanisms have been proposed for these beneficial effects, ranging from improved mucosal barrier function to direct influences on the immune system. However, the exact mode(s) of action are not yet known. For the future, elucidation of these mechanisms will be an important target. Another important area will be the investigation of interactions between probiotics and other food components that influence allergies. This will enable optimization of probiotic use for the allergic subject.