Natural saltlicks are used by mammal species mainly to supplement mineral deficiency playing critical role in animal ecology. There is information gap on the use of natural saltlicks by mammals in Bhutan. Nine natural saltlicks from Jomotsangkha Wildlife Sanctuary were purposively selected to fill this gap of information. The study aimed to assess mineral composition and ecological behaviour of mammals at natural saltlicks. Nine composite soil samples were randomly collected and nine camera traps were set up at nine saltlicks for a duration of 56 days from 2 January to 28 February, 2019. Data management and analysis were carried out using camerabase and R software. Potassium, phosphorus and sodium elements were found in the saltlicks. Camera traps yielded 419 independent events of 12 species under 10 families. Herbivores were most common (n = 390) and non-herbivores the least (n = 12). Wild dog was also captured licking salts (n = 1) which is least reported across the world. Mineral composition (r = 0.70, p < .05) and anthropogenic activities (r = 0.60, p < .05) were key factors affecting the visitation rate and ecological behaviour of mammal species. Disturbed saltlicks from Samdrupcholing Range revealed fewer individuals of mammals (n = 71) with disturbed ecological behaviour while undisturbed saltlicks from Jomotsangkha Range revealed higher individuals of mammals (n = 340) with undisturbed ecological behaviour. Therefore, anthropogenic activities at disturbed saltlicks call for planned monitoring.
Orchids are the largest and diverse families of flowering plants. Orchids are found growing mostly in tropical climates affecting various communities socio-economically. Among many protected areas in Bhutan, Jomotshangkha Wildlife Sanctuary (JWS) is the least explored in terms of flora and fauna. The study was carried out to assess diversity, host tree preferences and to determine the growth zone of epiphytic orchids along the altitudinal gradient in Langchenphu gewog in JWS. Transect technique was used in which three trails transect were laid out with 10 sampling plots in each transect. Plots size of 20 m × 20 m along the altitudinal gradients were established maintaining an altitudinal interval of 100 meters between each sample plot. A total of 42 species of epiphytic orchids from 20 genera was recorded of23 host tree species under 15 families were recorded. A significant correlation between diversity of orchid and altitude was observed (r = .927, p < .05). Myrtaceae and Theaceae were the most preferred host tree families (14%) followed by Bignoniaceae (13%) and others respectively. The Study concludes that 57% of total species encountered prefers higher canopy & on a tree with rough bark, Pearson chi-square test (X2(1) = 4.7, p< .05) showed a significant difference between trunk, branches, and canopy. Many epiphytic orchids prefer dense canopy (n = 73, 47%) and living trees (99%). Future studies should be focused more on the flowering season for obtaining better information on orchid diversity in the study area.
The fragile ecosystem of greater Himalaya is home to diverse flora and fauna which are vulnerable to climate change impact. This study aimed to determine the suitable habitat of King Cobra Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor, 1836) in the current scenario and near-future scenario of the year 2040-2060 (RCP 2.6, RCP 4.5, and RCP 8.5). Geographic coordinates of its occurrence were obtained from published literature and environmental layers were obtained from worldclim.org and processed using ArcGIS and software R. The model was developed using MaxENT algorithms. The model was validated using the area under the curve (AUC) and True skill statistics (TSS), which showed that the model is very good (AUC =0.86) and (TSS=0.6). The results showed that altitude is a prime factor affecting the distribution of King Cobra in Nepal with a percent contribution of 31% followed by actual evapotranspiration 14.4% and least by Mean diurnal range (Bio2nep) 7%. The model predicted an area of 41,214 Km2 as suitable habitat for King Cobra in Nepal. The Chitwan National Park possesses a maximum suitable area (726.89 km2) followed by Chitwan-Buffer Zone (601.68 sq. Km2) and least by Sagarmatha National Park (1.73 km2) and Shey-Phoksundo-buffer zone (1.73 Km2). Our data indicate urban areas being the most suitable sites followed by open forest covers. The projection indicates contraction of 8% and 4% in a suitable area for RCP 4.5 and RCP 2.6 respectively, whereas RCP 8.5 showed expansion of 4%. Having probably suitable habitat in urban areas research proposes frequent awareness camping about conservation and protection of vulnerable King Cobra in Nepal.
Natural habitats of Paphiopedilum fairrieanum (Lindl.) Stein was studied in the Taksha Range, Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park, Bhutan, to determine the distribution range, population status, ecological conditions, and associated risks of the orchid. A total of 22 quadrat plots were assessed at two different locations at Rukha and Passang Omchu. The study discovered 519 individuals, mostly on steep slopes and cliffs in chirpine dominated forests with a canopy cover of less than 35% at elevations ranging from 980-1540 m above sea level. The plants were found on a limestone substrate with soil pH ranging from 7.3 to 8.0 and soil moisture content ranging from 1.4 to 2.5%, regardless of aspects and inclination. The greatest threats to the species in the study area were forest fire, browsing by wild ungulates, and anthropogenic activities.
Bhutan is located between the two zoogeographic regions which are assumed to be rich in diversity of water beetles. The study aimed to determine the diversity and distribution pattern of water beetles in different freshwater habitats in Namgaychholing under Samtse district, Bhutan. The study also analysed the association of water beetles with the physico-chemical parameters. The data were collected from four different habitats with sample plot of 3 m × 1 m for a standard time of 1 hour in every plot. A total of 30 species belonging to 7 families were recorded of which Dytiscidae (n=626, RA=51) was the most abundant family and Lacconectus basalis (n=416, RA=34.13) was the most abundant species. The overall Shannon diversity index of the study area was H ′=2.48. Amongst the different habitats, marshy area had the highest Shannon diversity index (H ′=2.45) and stream had the lowest (H ′=1.82). A Kruskal Wallis test on diversity among different habitats showed no significant difference (p<.05). Through a cluster analysis, the species composition between the river and waterlogged showed 100% similarity index. Canonical correspondence analysis showed temperature as a main determining factor affecting the distribution of water beetles. With broad families encompassing the water beetles, similar study on water beetles in different regions of the country is recommended with particular emphasis on different families. Moreover, Bhutan falls in junction of Palearctic and Oriental Zoogeographic regions, which are known to be rich in diversity of water beetles. Hence, study in high-altitude lakes, which are assumed to be rich in diversity of water beetles are recommended despite social beliefs to keep lakes isolated and undisturbed.
A forest fire and human disturbances are a major threat to regeneration and forest health. This study was conducted in western Bhutan in Thimphu, above Depsi. The Objective of the research was to assess diversity, species richness, regeneration, and soil nutrients content (N, P& K) along the altitudinal gradient after a forest fire. A total of 30 standard plots of size 20x20 m plots were established in the burned blue pine forest systematically, along the altitudinal gradient. Systematic random sampling was adopted. Sampling was carried out at three different altitudinal zones that is; lower (2500-2700 masl), middle (2701-2900 masl), and higher (2901-3100 masl) altitude. A total of 1703 individual plants belonging to 21 families were recorded from the study area. The diversity, regeneration, and soil nutrient increased till mid-altitude and decreased with further increase in altitude, making a unimodal, hump shape pattern. The regeneration, soil nutrient, and diversity were higher in the gentle slope and the slope facing southeast due to the longer duration of sunlight exposition. The regeneration and diversity of vegetation showed a positive correlation with aspect, carbon, phosphorous, and nitrogen (p<.05). The diversity and regeneration after a fire was affected by environmental factors, especially soil nutrients, aspect, and slope. The study forms the baseline data for the forest manager to sustainably restore the forest after a fire. Species resistant to fire can be chosen for forest restoration. It can also be incorporated in management plans for sustainable management and conservation of mountain blue pine forests.
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