Technological devices have become essential components of daily life. However, their deleterious effects on the body, particularly on the nervous system, are well known. Electromagnetic fields (EMF) have various chemical effects, including causing deterioration in large molecules in cells and imbalance in ionic equilibrium. Despite being essential for life, oxygen molecules can lead to the generation of hazardous by-products, known as reactive oxygen species (ROS), during biological reactions. These reactive oxygen species can damage cellular components such as proteins, lipids and DNA. Antioxidant defense systems exist in order to keep free radical formation under control and to prevent their harmful effects on the biological system. Free radical formation can take place in various ways, including ultraviolet light, drugs, lipid oxidation, immunological reactions, radiation, stress, smoking, alcohol and biochemical redox reactions. Oxidative stress occurs if the antioxidant defense system is unable to prevent the harmful effects of free radicals. Several studies have reported that exposure to EMF results in oxidative stress in many tissues of the body. Exposure to EMF is known to increase free radical concentrations and traceability and can affect the radical couple recombination. The purpose of this review was to highlight the impact of oxidative stress on antioxidant systems.Abbreviations: EMF, electromagnetic fields; RF, radiofrequency; ROS, reactive oxygen species; GSH, glutathione; GPx, glutathione peroxidase; GR, glutathione reductase; GST, glutathione S-transferase; CAT, catalase; SOD, superoxide dismutase; HSP, heat shock protein; EMF/RFR, electromagnetic frequency and radiofrequency exposures; ELF-EMFs, exposure to extremely low frequency; MEL, melatonin; FA, folic acid; MDA, malondialdehyde.

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Stereology is a collection of methods which makes it possible to produce interpretations about actual three-dimensional features of objects based on data obtained from their two-dimensional sections or images. Quantitative morphological studies of the central nervous system have undergone significant development. In particular, new approaches known as design-based methods have been successfully applied to neuromorphological research. The morphology of macroscopic and microscopic structures, numbers of cells in organs and structures, and geometrical features such as length, volume, surface area and volume components of the organ concerned can be estimated in an unbiased manner using stereological techniques. The most practical and simplest stereological method is the fractionator technique, one of the most widely used methods for total particle number estimation. This review summarizes fractionator methods in theory and in practice. The most important feature of the methods is the simplicity of its application and underlying reasoning. Although there are three different types of the fractionator method, physical, optical and isotropic (biochemical), the logic underlying its applications remains the same. The fractionator method is one of the strongest and best options among available methods for estimation of the total number of cells in a given structure or organ. The second part of this review focuses on recent developments in stereology, including how to deal with lost caps, with tissue section deformation and shrinkage, and discusses issues of calibration, particle identification, and the role of stereology in the era of a non-histological alternative to counting of cells, the isotropic fractionator (brain soup technique).