This paper highlights the major challenges and considerations for addressing COVID-19 in informal settlements. It discusses what is known about vulnerabilities and how to support local protective action. There is heightened concern about informal urban settlements because of the combination of population density and inadequate access to water and sanitation, which makes standard advice about social distancing and washing hands implausible. There are further challenges to do with the lack of reliable data and the social, political and economic contexts in each setting that will influence vulnerability and possibilities for action. The potential health impacts of COVID-19 are immense in informal settlements, but if control measures are poorly executed these could also have severe negative impacts. Public health interventions must be balanced with social and economic interventions, especially in relation to the informal economy upon which many poor urban residents depend. Local residents, leaders and community-based groups must be engaged and resourced to develop locally appropriate control strategies, in partnership with local governments and authorities. Historically, informal settlements and their residents have been stigmatized, blamed, and subjected to rules and regulations that are unaffordable or unfeasible to adhere to. Responses to COVID-19 should not repeat these mistakes. Priorities for enabling effective control measures include: collaborating with local residents who have unsurpassed knowledge of relevant spatial and social infrastructures, strengthening coordination with local governments, and investing in improved data for monitoring the response in informal settlements.

A B S T R AC T This paper describes the work of the Pakistan NGO, Orangi Pilot Project-Research and Training Institute (OPP-RTI), in supporting improved provision for sanitation and other services in Orangi and other informal settlements in Karachi, and in other cities and smaller urban centres in Pakistan. It also describes an OPP-RTI programme to map and survey informal settlements in Karachi, and the youth training programme that supported this, and also the support for OPP-RTI partners in mapping in other urban centres. Improving infrastructure and services, and house upgrading in informal settlements, has been hampered by a lack of maps showing plot boundaries and existing infrastructure. Documenting and mapping these informal settlements has a number of important repercussions for urban policy, planning and infrastructure investment, as it demonstrates people's involvement and investment in development. As a result, planning agencies and local governments have realized the need to support this work, rather than ignoring or duplicating it, and this has had important implications on how infrastructure is planned, financed and managed. As the paper describes, this includes greatly reducing or removing the need for international loans to finance such investments. K E Y W O R D S governance / mapping / planning / sanitation / surveys

This paper describes the fi nancing mechanisms for the sanitation programme supported by the Orangi Pilot Project's Research and Training Institute (OPP-RTI) in informal settlements in Karachi and other urban centres in Pakistan. These centre on OPP-RTI support for the inhabitants of a lane to plan, implement and fi nance the "internal components" -sanitary latrines in the houses, underground sewers in the lanes and neighbourhood collector sewers -and support for local governments to fi nance the larger "external" trunk sewers into which the neighbourhood sewers feed and also treatment plants. The inhabitants have to raise all the funding to cover the costs of the internal components and in around 300 locations in Pakistan, communities have fi nanced, managed and built their own internal sanitation systems. Local governments can also afford to install the external systems as they no longer have to fund the internal components, and as OPP-RTI has helped them develop much lower-cost methods for planning and building trunk sewers.

This paper derives from a longer IIED report and describes the close relationship between migration/emigration and the sociology/ecology of the different regions of Pakistan, and poverty-related issues in these regions. It also deals with the massive migrations from India to Pakistan (at the time of partition and as a result of three wars with India), the migration from Afghanistan (as a result of the prolonged Afghan war), and from Bangladesh (as a result of the creation of that country). The socioeconomic and political repercussions of these migrations are discussed, as well as rural-urban migration and its repercussions on both the urban and rural areas of Pakistan. The sections on emigration establish that, by and large, emigration has not benefited the emigrants and their families except in relation to building real estate. In addition, it has created severe strains on the extended family and has increased the rich-poor divide. However, worker's remittances from abroad have played an important role in the growth of Pakistan's GDP, and without them the exchange rate and monetary and fiscal policies would have come under greater pressure. The paper also deals with the legal and illegal processes of migration and emigration; the role of the informal and state agencies in the processes; the role of emigrant organizations in financing and in social projects and programmes; and suggestions for enhancing and improving these roles. Finally, the paper focuses on three very different small towns and discusses the impact of migration and emigration on their physical and socioeconomic development; also the fact that although the economy is dominated by the merchant classes, the political power rests firmly with the landed elite except where the state is the major landowner.

Karachi is one of the world’s fastest growing large cities. This paper describes the complex processes by which land is (formally and informally) made available for housing (and for commercial development), as well as who benefits – and how the low-income majority of Karachi citizens lose out. It also describes what underpins this – especially the political complications in a city that has grown so rapidly, has had fundamental changes in its ethnic composition (and thus also in its politics) and has attracted so many illegal immigrants. The paper describes the changes in formal and informal land markets over the last 50 years and the changing responses by government agencies to housing (and land for housing) issues. Also explored are the connections among land, housing and transport (which include different processes of densification) and the complex politics involved. The paper ends with recommendations for land titling, for changes in transport policies, for better use of land already owned by government agencies, for cross-political party agreement on how to address serious security issues (that are leading to loss of investment) and for increased political effectiveness of Karachi’s active civil society organizations.

Over 20 years the Orangi Pilot Project has been working to understand the problems of Orangi, a district of Karachi largely characterised by high-density informal settlement, and enable its residents to develop and implement solutions. Sanitation was identified as the major problem and a sewerage system was built. From this work was developed the "internal-external" concept for sanitation, which has 4 levels: sanitary latrines in houses; underground sewer in lane; neighbourhood collector sewer; and trunk sewer and treatment plant. The first three components are "internal" and can be undertaken by low-income communities; the "external" fourth component has to be funded and carried out by government or similar agency. Successful and unsuccessful attempts elsewhere to replicate this model have both confirmed the effectiveness and practicality of such community-based action and shown the - largely organisational pitfalls that must be avoided.

The present study goal is to identify assorted factors and also to investigate their influence on tourists’ behavioural intentions about their usage patterns with respect to M-wallet payment. A conceptual model has been anticipated and authenticated and 600 questionnaires were distributed and 482 were usable. Structural equation modelling was employed to assess research hypotheses. The result shows that the behavioural intention is significantly influenced by perceived value, trust, compatibility and social influence while tourists’ is less optimistic when it comes to use M-wallet with regard to perceived enjoyment. The study also showed that trust followed by compatibility has a more powerful influence on the behavioural intention of tourists in the context of M-payment. The present study is limited to only six M-wallet and that too limited to the certain age category, namely 18–25 in Gwalior city of India. Understanding the different dimensions of behavioural intentions can help M-wallet players to win the trust of tourists and enhance the frequency to use M-wallet for M-payment. The results indicate that M-wallet service providers should consider and manage all affecting factors proactively as mechanisms for intention to use M-wallet. It will establish a behavioural intention model of M-wallet users that can help organizations to manage the formation of behavioural intentions of their users.

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