Predicting the impact of climate change on species is often done using species distribution models, but these can be problematic in topographically diverse environments. For species relying on particular moisture gradients, such as Australian rainforest frogs, accurate predictions of moisture availability are crucial. We found that while temperature gradients can be more accurately modeled with highresolution digital elevation models, moisture availability can be inaccurately represented by climate layers. Standard distribution models are also limited in their ability to account for other factors influencing habitat suitability, such as competitor species or disease. Expert knowledge can be useful for bridging these gaps.

Since European occupation of Australia, human activities have caused the dramatic decline and sometimes extinction of many of the continent's unique species. Here we provide a comprehensive review of threats to species listed as threatened under Australia's Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. Following accepted global categories of threat, we find that invasive species affect the largest number of listed species (1257 species, or 82% of all threatened species); ecosystem modifications (e.g. fire) (74% of listed species) and agricultural activity (57%) are also important. The ranking of threats was largely consistent across taxonomic groups and the degree of species' endangerment. These results were significantly different (P

Achieving global sustainability objectives such as the UN Sustainable Development Goals or Aichi Targets, including remaining within planetary boundaries, necessitates proactively avoiding a proportion of the environmental impacts otherwise expected to result from economic development. Quantifying these "avoided" impacts is important for monitoring progress toward meeting sustainability objectives, but doing so in a consistent way is fraught with difficulty. Using the mitigation of biodiversity impacts by development projects as an example, we explored the challenges of defining and measuring impact avoidance. Avoidance can be defined as either action-based or outcome-based, and classified by whether it is achieved through project cancellation, spatial avoidance, design-based avoidance, or temporal avoidance. We also examined what drives different types of project proponents to implement avoidance measures. To support empirical quantification of the contribution that avoidance makes toward conservation goals, we present a framework for structuring assessments of biodiversity impact avoidance. Our framework has widespread applicability in conservation science, policy, and practice, as well as relevance for broader policies that seek to avoid environmental and social impacts.

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Resource partitioning enables closely-related, morphologically similar species to coexist. We investigated resource partitioning by two closely-related insectivorous bats, the Eastern Freetail Bat Mormopterus sp. 2 and Southern Freetail Bat Mormopterus sp. 4, within the zone of sympatry in northern Victoria. We sampled 36 sites with harp-traps and bat detectors; caught a total of 159 Mormopterus , and identified 961 echolocation passes. Analysis of wing dimensions suggested that Mormopterus sp. 4 was a faster, less manoeuvrable flyer than Mormopterus sp. 2. This was supported by greater activity levels at more open and less structurally complex sites. Mormopterus sp. 2 was significantly more active in riparian habitats, which may be due to a preference for more mesic environments. Observations of flight patterns revealed slight differences in the two species' microhabitat use, however both species flew predominantly in the spaces between trees. Hemiptera was the most consumed arthropod order in the diet of both species. The subtle, yet significant differences in wing morphology were reflected in the slight differences in microhabitat use by the two species, and the presence of superabundant Hemipteran prey may allow the two species to coexist.

Habitat loss is driving the extirpation of fauna across Earth. Many species are now absent from vast areas where they once occurred in inhabited continents, yet we do not have a good understanding of the extent to which different species have been extirpated, nor the degree to which range contractions and habitat loss has contributed to this local extirpation. Here, for the first time, we use a combination of scientific literature, historical sources, spatial data, and expert elicitation to map the past extent of potential habitats, and changes thereto, of 72 of Australia’s most imperilled terrestrial birds. By comparing the area of potential habitat within the past and current ranges of these taxa, we quantify the extent over which each of Australia’s threatened terrestrial birds have likely been extirpated and assess the amount and configuration of potential habitat that remains. Our results show that since 1750 (before European colonization), at least one extant taxon of threatened bird has disappeared from over 530 million hectares (69%) of Australia, through both range contractions and loss of potentially suitable habitat (noting these are not mutually exclusive phenomena). Ten taxa (14%) have likely been extirpated from >99% of their past potential habitat. For 56 taxa (78%), remaining habitat within their current potential habitats has become fragmented. This research paints a sobering picture of the extent of local extirpation of threatened birds from much of Australia over a 250-year time period. By mapping and quantifying this loss, these findings will help refine scientific understanding about the impact of habitat removal and other pervasive threats that are driving this observed extirpation.

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1.Budgeting for biodiversity conservation requires realistic estimates of the costs of threat abatement. However, data on the costs of managing threats to biodiversity is often unavailable or unable to be extrapolated across relevant locations and scales due to a lack of transparency and consistency in how it was collated. Conservation expenditure largely occurs without a priori estimates costs across broad scales and is not recorded in ways that can inform future budgets nor the comparison of action cost-effectiveness.2.We provide transparent, broadly applicable cost models for 18 Threat Abatement Strategies aimed at managing the processes threatening biodiversity across the Australian continent. We define the actions required to implement each strategy and use a consistent structure to classify costs into components of labour, travel, consumables and equipment. We drew upon expert knowledge and literature to parameterise and apply each model, estimating the implementation cost of each strategy across Australia, accounting for spatial variables such as threats, terrain, and travel distance. 3.The baseline cost estimates generated by the models for threat abatement strategies varied considerably between strategies and across Australia, ranging from $24 - $0.88m per km2/year ($0.24 - $8.8k per ha/year). Across all strategies, Labour made up most of the action costs (49%), followed by Consumables (37%), Travel (13%) and Equipment (2%). A Monte Carlo simulation indicated that threat abatement strategy costs had on average an upper and lower bound of +44% and -33% of the baseline cost.4.Policy Implications - We provide a consistent and transparent approach to budgeting for threat abatement strategies, aiming to improve conservation planning processes, outcomes and reporting requirements across Australia. Understanding the budget required to achieve threat management outcomes can aid revenue-raising and target setting. The models, cost layers and estimates we generate provide the basis for a nationally consistent approach for estimating and recording the cost of biodiversity management strategies, which should be continually improved and updated over time.