Originally conceived to conserve iconic landscapes and wildlife, protected areas are now expected to achieve an increasingly diverse set of conservation, social and economic objectives. The amount of land and sea designated as formally protected has markedly increased over the past century, but there is still a major shortfall in political commitments to enhance the coverage and effectiveness of protected areas. Financial support for protected areas is dwarfed by the benefits that they provide, but these returns depend on effective management. A step change involving increased recognition, funding, planning and enforcement is urgently needed if protected areas are going to fulfil their potential.

Human pressures on the environment are changing spatially and temporally, with profound implications for the planet's biodiversity and human economies. Here we use recently available data on infrastructure, land cover and human access into natural areas to construct a globally standardized measure of the cumulative human footprint on the terrestrial environment at 1 km2 resolution from 1993 to 2009. We note that while the human population has increased by 23% and the world economy has grown 153%, the human footprint has increased by just 9%. Still, 75% the planet's land surface is experiencing measurable human pressures. Moreover, pressures are perversely intense, widespread and rapidly intensifying in places with high biodiversity. Encouragingly, we discover decreases in environmental pressures in the wealthiest countries and those with strong control of corruption. Clearly the human footprint on Earth is changing, yet there are still opportunities for conservation gains.

© 2 0 1 6 M a c m i l l a n P u b l i s h e r s L i m i t e d , p a r t o f S p r i n g e r N a t u r e . A l l r i g h t s r e s e r v e d .risk -have guided assessments, now for 82,845 species. Assessors assign species to categories, including 'near-threatened' , 'vulnerable' , 'endangered' or 'critically endangered' depending on their population size; past, current and projected population trends; geographic range and other symptoms of extinction risk. Species in the latter three groups are collectively referred to as 'threatened' .To assess the relative prevalence of current hazards to biodiversity, we quantified threat information for 8,688 near-threatened or threatened species belonging to species groups in which all known species have been assessed (for complete list of taxa included, see Supplementary Information; go.nature.com/2ajen88).The basic message emerging from these data is that whatever the threat category or species group, overexploitation and agriculture have the greatest current impact on biodiversity (see 'Big killers').Of the species listed as threatened or near-threatened, 72% (6,241) are being overexploited for commerce, recreation or subsistence. The Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis), Western gorilla (Gorilla gorilla) and Chinese pangolin (Manis penta dactyla, a scaly mammal), for instance, are all illegally hunted as a result of high market demand for their body parts and meat. These are just three of the more than 2,700 species affected by hunting or fishing, or by people collecting live specimens for the pet trade. At the same time, unsustainable logging is contributing to the decline of more than 4,000 forest-dependent species, such as the Bornean wren-babbler (Ptilocichla leucogrammica), India's Nicobar shrew (Crocidura nicobarica), and the Myanmar snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus strykeri).The expansion and intensification of agricultural activity is imperilling 5,407 species -62% of those listed as threatened or near-threatened. Africa's cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus), Asia's hairy-nosed otter (Lutra sumatrana) and South America's huemul deer (Hippocamelus bisulcus) are among more than 2,300 species affected by livestock farming and aquaculture. And the Fresno kangaroo rat (Dipodomys nitratoides) and the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) are two of more than 4,600 species currently under threat from land modification associated with the production of food, fodder or fuel crops.Meanwhile, anthropogenic climate change -including increases in storms, flooding, extreme temperatures or drought that exceed background variability, as well as sea-level rise -is currently affecting 19% of species listed as threatened or near-threatened. Hooded seals (Cystophora cristata) are among the 1,688 species affected. These have dropped in abundance by 90% in the northeastern Atlantic Arctic over the past few decades More than 80% of species analysed are harmed by more than one sub-class threat. OVER-EXPLOITATION BIG KILLE SOverexploitation and agriculture are the most prevalent threats faci...