ObjectiveTo estimate the economic impact likely to be achieved by efforts to vaccinate against 10 vaccine-preventable diseases between 2001 and 2020 in 73 low- and middle-income countries largely supported by Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance.MethodsWe used health impact models to estimate the economic impact of achieving forecasted coverages for vaccination against Haemophilus influenzae type b, hepatitis B, human papillomavirus, Japanese encephalitis, measles, Neisseria meningitidis serogroup A, rotavirus, rubella, Streptococcus pneumoniae and yellow fever. In comparison with no vaccination, we modelled the costs – expressed in 2010 United States dollars (US$) – of averted treatment, transportation costs, productivity losses of caregivers and productivity losses due to disability and death. We used the value-of-a-life-year method to estimate the broader economic and social value of living longer, in better health, as a result of immunization.FindingsWe estimated that, in the 73 countries, vaccinations given between 2001 and 2020 will avert over 20 million deaths and save US$ 350 billion in cost of illness. The deaths and disability prevented by vaccinations given during the two decades will result in estimated lifelong productivity gains totalling US$ 330 billion and US$ 9 billion, respectively. Over the lifetimes of the vaccinated cohorts, the same vaccinations will save an estimated US$ 5 billion in treatment costs. The broader economic and social value of these vaccinations is estimated at US$ 820 billion.ConclusionBy preventing significant costs and potentially increasing economic productivity among some of the world’s poorest countries, the impact of immunization goes well beyond health.

BackgroundChildhood pneumonia is a major cause of childhood illness and the second leading cause of child death globally. Understanding the costs associated with the management of childhood pneumonia is essential for resource allocation and priority setting for child health.MethodsWe conducted a systematic review to identify studies reporting data on the cost of management of pneumonia in children younger than 5 years old. We collected unpublished cost data on non–severe, severe and very severe pneumonia through collaboration with an international working group. We extracted data on cost per episode, duration of hospital stay and unit cost of interventions for the management of pneumonia. The mean (95% confidence interval, CI) and median (interquartile range, IQR) treatment costs were estimated and reported where appropriate.ResultsWe identified 24 published studies eligible for inclusion and supplemented these with data from 10 unpublished studies. The 34 studies included in the cost analysis contained data on more than 95 000 children with pneumonia from both low– and–middle income countries (LMIC) and high–income countries (HIC) covering all 6 WHO regions. The total cost (per episode) for management of severe pneumonia was US$ 4.3 (95% CI 1.5–8.7), US$ 51.7 (95% CI 17.4–91.0) and US$ 242.7 (95% CI 153.6–341.4)–559.4 (95% CI 268.9–886.3) in community, out–patient facilities and different levels of hospital in–patient settings in LMIC. Direct medical cost for severe pneumonia in hospital inpatient settings was estimated to be 26.6%–115.8% of patients’ monthly household income in LMIC. The mean direct non–medical cost and indirect cost for severe pneumonia management accounted for 0.5–31% of weekly household income. The mean length of stay (LOS) in hospital for children with severe pneumonia was 5.8 (IQR 5.3–6.4) and 7.7 (IQR 5.5–9.9) days in LMIC and HIC respectively for these children.ConclusionThis is the most comprehensive review to date of cost data from studies on the management of childhood pneumonia and these data should be helpful for health services planning and priority setting by national programmes and international agencies.

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A substantial burden of pneumococcal disease in the region is potentially preventable with pneumococcal conjugate vaccines and should be considered in regional vaccine decision making. Results are limited by the very few studies, conducted in selected settings, included in this review.

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ABSTRACT.Objective. The effect of breastfeeding on community-acquired neonatal infections has not been well studied, although the neonatal period is one of special vulnerability to infectious pathogens. Respiratory tract infections are the neonatal infection most commonly diagnosed after nursery discharge. We therefore chose respiratory tract infections diagnosed after nursery discharge as representative of neonatal community-acquired infection and studied the impact of breastfeeding on this neonatal infection syndrome.Methods. An unmatched nested case-control study was performed within a previously defined study cohort of 13 224 mother-infant pairs delivering between October 1, 1990, and March 31, 1998. Infants who were delivered at < 37 weeks' gestation were excluded. Neonatal respiratory tract infections were defined using modified National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System criteria and were included in the case series when diagnosed after nursery discharge and at age <30 days. Infant feeding status during the first month of life was ascertained using automated text search of electronic medical records and was categorized as exclusive breastfeeding, mixed feeding, or exclusive formula feeding.Results. A total of 241 neonatal respiratory tract infections were found, and 1205 control subjects were selected. Compared with control subjects, case infants were more often born during the winter respiratory syncytial virus season (48% vs 33%), more likely to have a sibling present (70% vs 54%), and more likely to be a member of a socioeconomically at-risk family (24% vs 18%). Case patients were less likely to be exclusively breastfed (38% vs 44%) and equally likely to be exposed to mixed feeding (35% vs 34%) relative to control subjects. When compared with formula feeding only, the odds ratio (OR) of exclusive breastfeeding was 0.70 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.49 -0.99) and that of mixed feeding was 0.83 (95% CI: 0.58 -1.2). However, when stratified by infant sex, the inverse association between breastfeeding and risk of neonatal respiratory tract infection was confined to neonatal girls, for whom the unadjusted ORs associated with breastfeeding only and mixed feeding were 0.5 (95% CI: 0.29 -0.78) and 0.6 (95% CI: 0.35-0.93), respectively. There was no meaningful association between breastfeeding and risk of neonatal respiratory tract infection among neonatal boys, for whom the unadjusted ORs associated with breastfeeding only and mixed feeding were 1.1 (95% CI: 0.63-1.8) and 1.3 (95% CI: 0.74 -2.1), respectively. After adjustment for year of birth, season of birth, siblings, and socioeconomic status, both exclusive breastfeeding and mixed feeding remained protective among girls, with ORs of 0.5 (0.29 -0.78) and 0.6 (0.34 -0.93), respectively. The corresponding ORs for boys were 1.1 (0.64 -2.0) and 1.4 (0.78 -2.4).Conclusions. charge, 6 and they are typically not caused by congenital structural anomalies, as might be the case for other syndromes such as urinary tract infections. We therefore chose respir...

There are no parenteral antihelminthic drugs licensed for use in humans. We report the successful treatment of disseminated strongyloidiasis with a parenteral veterinary formulation of ivermectin in a patient presenting with severe malabsorption and paralytic ileus. To our knowledge, ivermectin levels are reported for the first time in this situation.

OBJECTIVENewer medications offer more options for glycemic control in type 2 diabetes. However, they come at considerable costs. We undertook a health economic analysis to better understand the value of adding two newer medications (exenatide and sitagliptin) as second-line therapy to glycemic control strategies for patients with new-onset diabetes.RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODSWe performed a cost-effectiveness analysis for the U.S. population aged 25–64. A lifetime analytic horizon and health care system perspective were used. Costs and quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) were discounted at 3% annually, and costs are presented in 2008 U.S. dollars. We compared three glycemic control strategies: 1) glyburide as a second-line agent, 2) exenatide as a second-line agent, and 3) sitagliptin as a second-line agent. Outcome measures included QALYs gained, incremental costs, and the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio associated with each strategy.RESULTSExenatide and sitagliptin conferred 0.09 and 0.12 additional QALYs, respectively, relative to glyburide as second-line therapy. In base case analysis, exenatide was dominated (cost more and provided fewer QALYs than the next most expensive option), and sitagliptin was associated with an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of $169,572 per QALY saved. Results were sensitive to assumptions regarding medication costs, side effect duration, and side effect–associated disutilities.CONCLUSIONSExenatide and sitagliptin may confer substantial costs to health care systems. Demonstrated gains in quality and/or quantity of life are necessary for these agents to provide economic value to patients and health care systems.