Summary1. Plant litter is a key component in terrestrial ecosystems. It plays a major role in nutrient cycles and community organization. Land use and climate change may change the accumulation of litter in herbaceous ecosystems and affect plant community dynamics. Additionally, the transfer of seeds containing plant material (i.e. litter) is a widespread technique in grassland restoration. 2. Ecosystem responses to litter represent the outcome of interactions, whose sign and strength will depend on many variables (e.g. litter amount, seed size). A previous meta-analysis (from 1999) reported that litter had an overall negative effect on seed germination and seedling establishment in different ecosystems. However, recent studies indicated that this might not be the case in grassland ecosystems. 3. We used 914 data from 46 independent studies to analyse the effects of litter on seedling (i) emergence, (ii) survival and (iii) biomass, employing meta-analytical techniques. Each data set was stratified according to methodology, grassland type, irrigation conditions, litter amount and seed size. 4. We found an overall neutral effect of litter presence on seedling emergence and survival and a positive effect on seedling biomass. However, whereas for field experiments the response remained neutral, it was positive for common garden studies. In glasshouse experiments, litter effects were negative for emergence and positive for biomass. 5. Litter may have a positive effect on seedling recruitment in dry grasslands or under water-limited conditions, or in the presence of low to medium litter amounts (< 500 g m À2 ). However, high litter amounts (> 500 g m À2 ) will inhibit seedling recruitment. Large seeds showed a more positive response to litter presence with respect to seedling emergence and survival, but not concerning biomass. 6. Synthesis. Under dry conditions (e.g. dry grasslands or dry periods) or with low to medium litter amounts, litter presence has a positive effect on seedling establishment. However, climate and land use change may promote litter accumulation and reduce seedling establishment, affecting grasslands composition and ecosystem functions.

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The theoretical underpinnings of the assessment of invasive alien species impacts need to be improved. At present most approaches are unreliable to quantify impact at regional scales and do not allow for comparison of different invasive species. There are four basic problems that need to be addressed: (1) Some impacted ecosystem traits are spatially not additive; (2) invader effects may increase non-linearly with abundance or there may be effect thresholds impairing estimates of linear impact models; (3) the abundance and impact of alien species will often co-vary with environmental variation; and (4) the total invaded range is an inappropriate measure for quantifying regional impact because the habitat area available for invasion can vary markedly among invasive species. Mathematical models and empirical data using an invasive alien plant species (Heracleum mantegazzianum) indicate that ignoring these issues leads to impact estimates almost an order of magnitude from the real values. Thus, we propose a habitatsensitive formula for regional impact assessment that is unaffected by non-linearity. Furthermore, we make some statistical suggestions on how to assess invader effects properly and we discuss the quantification of the invaded range. These improvements are crucial for impact assessment with the overall aim of prioritizing management of invasive species.

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Abstract. We studied the restoration success of flood plain meadows in the northern Upper Rhine valley, where between 1988 and 1992, 35 ha of arable land was converted into grassland and subsequently managed for nature conservation. Remnant populations of typical alluvial meadow species were found in old meadows and along drainage ditches that dissect the whole area. We analysed the site conditions and phytosociological relevés in old and new meadows. Small differences in site parameters between old and new meadows contrasted with a clear floristic differentiation between the two meadow types. The vegetation of old meadows was much more differentiated along prevailing environmental gradients than the vegetation of new meadows. Despite the favourable site conditions for the re‐establishment of species‐rich meadows on the former arable land, restoration success was limited to the vicinity of remnant stands. In contrast to old meadows, indicator species of new grassland were still typical species of regularly disturbed ruderal and arable habitats, often capable of building up a persistent seed bank. The precise mapping of 23 target species revealed that even wind dispersal predominantly leads to re‐establishment in the close circumference of parent plants. We found no indication that regular flooding, hay‐making and autumnal grazing had an impact on recolonization of newly created grassland. Even under favourable conditions for the re‐establishment of target species, restoration success in alluvial meadows proved to be strongly dispersal limited. We discuss the implications of our findings for future restoration management in grasslands.

Abstract. In previous studies, limited dispersal was revealed to be the main obstacle to restoration of species‐rich flood‐meadows along the northern Upper Rhine in Germany. To overcome dispersal limitation we transferred freshly mown plant material from species‐rich sources to a restoration site on a former arable field. Before plant material application, topsoil was removed to accelerate nutrient impoverishment and create favourable conditions for seedling recruitment. Topsoil removal led to a drastic reduction in organic matter and essential mineral nutrients to the level of target communities (P) or even below (N, K). At a removal depth of 30 cm content of the soil seed bank that comprised exclusively of annual arable weeds, ruderals and some common grassland species, declined by 60 ‐ 80%, while at a removal depth of 50 cm the seed bank was almost completely eliminated. With few exceptions, all species recorded in source plant material were found established at the restoration site. However, the overall correlation between seed content in plant material and establishment success was not very high. Vegetation development at the restoration site was characterized by a rapid decline in arable weeds and ruderals, while resident grassland species and species transferred with plant material increased rapidly from the third year onwards. After four years as many as 102 species were established that could be exclusively attributed to plant material transfer, among them many rare and highly endangered plants. Establishment of species from plant material was most successful in regularly flooded plots, due to the suppression of competitors as well as the creation of favourable moisture conditions for seedling emergence. Diaspore transfer with plant material proved to be an extremely successful method in restoring species‐rich grassland. However, high quality of plant material and suitable site conditions with low competition in early stages of succession seem to be essential prerequisites.