To date, it has been shown that cognitive map representations based on cartographic visualisations are systematically distorted. The grid is a traditional element of map graphics that has rarely been considered in research on perception-based spatial distortions. Grids do not only support the map reader in finding coordinates or locations of objects, they also provide a systematic structure for clustering visual map information (“spatial chunks”). The aim of this study was to examine whether different cartographic kinds of grids reduce spatial distortions and improve recall memory for object locations. Recall performance was measured as both the percentage of correctly recalled objects (hit rate) and the mean distance errors of correctly recalled objects (spatial accuracy). Different kinds of grids (continuous lines, dashed lines, crosses) were applied to topographic maps. These maps were also varied in their type of characteristic areas (LANDSCAPE) and different information layer compositions (DENSITY) to examine the effects of map complexity. The study involving 144 participants shows that all experimental cartographic factors (GRID, LANDSCAPE, DENSITY) improve recall performance and spatial accuracy of learned object locations. Overlaying a topographic map with a grid significantly reduces the mean distance errors of correctly recalled map objects. The paper includes a discussion of a square grid's usefulness concerning object location memory, independent of whether the grid is clearly visible (continuous or dashed lines) or only indicated by crosses.

The investigation of specific lexical categories has substantially contributed to advancing our knowledge on how meaning is neurally represented. One sensory domain that has received particularly little attention is olfaction. This study aims to investigate the neural representation of lexical olfaction. In an fMRI experiment, participants read olfactory metaphors, their literal paraphrases, and literal olfactory sentences. Regions of interest were defined by a functional localizer run of odor processing. We observed activation in secondary olfactory areas during metaphorical and literal olfactory processing, thus extending previous findings to the novel source domain of olfaction. Previously reported enhanced activation in emotion-related areas due to metaphoricity could not be replicated. Finally, no primary olfactory cortex was found active during lexical olfaction processing. We suggest that this absence is due to olfactory hedonicity being crucial to understand the meaning of the current olfactory expressions. Consequently, the processing of olfactory hedonicity recruits secondary olfactory areas.

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Research from the field of cognitive psychology provides evidence that cognitive representations of space based on maps or map-like sketches are subject to systematic distortion tendencies. These distortions influence the orientation capacity as they represent errors in spatial memory. Map grids are a traditional feature of map graphics that has rarely been considered in research on spatial distortions in cognitive maps. Grids traditionally assist the map reader in finding coordinates and objects, but they also provide a systematic and homogeneous structure for dividing up map information into smaller units supporting perception and spatial memory. In a previous study it was shown that grids improve object location memory. The aim of this study was to determine whether different sizes of grid cells have an effect on the quality of object location memory. Therefore, an empirical study including the test performances of 33 participants was carried out: the memory performance was measured as both the percentage of correctly recalled object locations (hit rate) and the mean distance errors of correctly recalled objects (spatial accuracy). Three different intervals of grid line spacing (Separation) were applied to topographic maps. These maps varied in their type of characteristic geographical areas, accompanied by three different levels of map complexity (Landscape). The results of this study show that both factors have an impact on object location memory in topographic maps. RÉSUMÉLa recherche sur la psychologie cognitive démontre que les représentations cognitives de l'espace fondées sur des cartes ou des croquis ont tendance à faire l'objet de distorsion systématique. Ces distorsions influencent la capacité d'orientation puisqu'elles représentent des erreurs dans la mémoire spatiale. On a rarement tenu compte des grilles cartographiques, une caractéristique traditionnelle des représentations graphiques de cartes, lors des recherches sur les distorsions spatiales dans les cartes cognitives. Par tradition, les grilles aident le lecteur d'une carte à trouver les coordonnées et les objets, mais elles fournissent également une structure systématique et homogène qui permet de diviser les renseignements contenus sur une carte en de plus petites unités, facilitant ainsi la perception et la mémoire spatiale. Une étude réalisée antérieurement a démontré que les grilles améliorent la mémoire servant à localiser les objets; cet article décrit une expérience conçue pour déterminer si les différentes dimensions des cellules des grilles ont un effet sur la qualité de ce type de mémoire. Dans une étude empirique des performances réalisées par 33 participants à un test, la performance de la mémoire a été mesurée à la fois selon le pourcentage d'objets correctement localisés (taux de succès) et selon les erreurs de distance moyennes des objets correctement localisés (exactitude spatiale). Le test utilisait trois différents intervalles d'espacements des lignes des grilles (séparation), intervalles appliqués à des cartes topographiqu...

Findings of empirical studies of spatial memory using maps are direct responses to the successful transfer and processing of map information. The memory performance of map users is an important indication of the quality of a map design. Studies of spatial memory have mainly relied on recall performances, but maps can be used in various ways depending on the map user's task and applied strategy. Therefore, one memory paradigm does not cover the entire spectrum of options for examining the retrieval of map information. Three different experiments were designed to analyze and compare memory performances using different map information in recall and recognition (combining episodic and semantic memory) paradigms. The results demonstrate that map complexity, as varied by the amount of displayed map detail, contributes significantly to memory performance. Moreover, memory enhancement affected by map-structuring elements (grids) depends on the respective paradigm and also on the visual appearance of the structuring elements. Both paradigms for examining the influence of map information on cognitive processing can be applied specifically to analyze the efficiency of map designs. On the basis of the different effects of map information, a reasoned application of these paradigms to test map designs is indispensable.