This article addresses Salazarism's attitudes towards women and women's organizations, providing some elements that may be used in comparisons with the other dictatorships (e.g. Italian Fascism) that inspired, to some extent, some of the Portuguese New State's institutions.If the southern European dictatorships of the inter-war period have anything in common, it is their attitudes towards women (Bock and Cova 2003). Initiated during a period of democratization, of the emergence of feminist movements, and the significant increase of women in the labour market, all of these dictatorships paid homage to 'women at home', and glorified 'motherhood' and the family in its primordial function (Offen 2000;Bock 2001). These dictatorships were at the same time confronted with the 'problem' of the integration of women into politics. Some elevated this function to a nationalist goal and an important means of mobilizing their regimes.
Ex vivo gene therapy of Duchenne muscular dystrophy based on autologous transplantation of genetically modified myoblasts is limited by their premature senescence. MyoD-converted fibroblasts represent an alternative source of myogenic cells. In this study the forced MyoD-dependent conversion of murine NIH-3T3 fibroblasts into myoblasts under the control of an inducible promoter silent in the presence of tetracycline was evaluated. After tetracycline withdrawal this promoter drives the transcription of MyoD in the engineered fibroblasts, inducing their myogenesis and giving rise to β-galactosidase-positive cells. MyoD-expressing fibroblasts withdrew from the cell cycle, but were unable to fuse in vitro into multinucleated myotubes. Five days following implantation of engineered fibroblasts in muscles of C57BL/10J mice we observed a sevenfold increase of β-galactosidase-positive regenerating myofibers in animals not treated with antibiotic compared with treated animals. After 1 week the number of positive fibers decreased and several apoptotic myonuclei were detected. Three weeks following implantation of MyoD-converted fibroblasts in recipient mice, no positive "blue" fiber was observed. Our results suggest that transactivation by tetracycline of MyoD may drive an in vivo myogenic conversion of NIH-3T3 fibroblasts and that, in this experimental setting, apoptosis plays a relevant role in limiting the efficacy of engineered fibroblast transplantation. This work opens the question whether apoptotic phenomena also play a general role as limiting factors of cellmediated gene therapy of inherited muscle disorders.
De la fin du XIXe siècle jusqu’en 1939 des années s’écoulent durant lesquelles l’idée de protection de la maternité fait son chemin, long parcours qui n’est pas nécessairement linéaire et qui permet de saisir l’édification de l’Etat-providence en France. Il n’y a aucune loi spécifique en faveur de la protection maternelle jusqu’au début du XXe siècle. Les premières lois relatives à la protection de la maternité reconnaissent le droit de certaines mères à être protégées et l’obligation qui en découle pour l’Etat de leur assurer cette protection. Puis, ce sera l’entre-deux-guerres, où commence le cycle de l’assurance qui supplante celui de l’assistance. Les divers mouvements de femmes ne cesseront de revendiquer la protection de la maternité. Elles sont des actrices, parmi d’autres, dans la construction de cet Etat-protecteur.
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