In this longitudinal study, we examined whether certain types of stressful events and how individuals respond to these events would explain gender differences in depressive symptoms among adolescents. We hypothesized that certain stressful events would mediate the relationship between gender and depressive symptoms. We also hypothesized that individual differences in emotional reactivity would impact part of this relationship. Lastly, we examined whether gender differences in early childhood temperament might explain gender differences in emotional reactivity in adolescence. We examined these hypotheses in a sample of 315 adolescents (51% females; 93% Caucasian; 3% African-American; and 1% each Hispanic, Asian-American, and Native American) participating in a longitudinal study of child development since birth. We used multiple regression and constrained nonlinear regression to analyze the data. Results indicated that stressful events significantly mediated gender differences in depression, and that individual differences in emotional reactivity to these stressors significantly moderated the relationship between stress and depression. We also observed significant gender differences in emotional reactivity to these stressors; temperamental differences in withdrawal negativity in infancy were marginally significant in mediating gender differences in emotional reactivity to stress in adolescence.

This study examined whether the cognitive vulnerability-stress model of depression may contribute to our understanding of the gender difference in depression in adolescence. Specifically, we examined emergent gender differences in depressive symptoms, cognitive style, and stress in the context of exposure, cognitive scar, and stress generation models. We also examined whether gender moderated the cognitive vulnerability-stress effects on depression. Participants were 366 youth from a community sample who completed measures of depressive symptoms, stress, and negative cognitive style at ages 11, 13, and 15. Data were analyzed longitudinally using multi-level modeling and structural equation modeling. Results indicated that gender differences in depressive symptoms emerged prior to gender differences in cognitive vulnerability and stressful life events; depressive symptoms significantly mediated the emergent gender difference in cognitive style and dependent interpersonal stress. Gender also moderated several components of the cognitive vulnerability-stress model. Girls showed stronger associations between stress and depression over time, and the cognitive vulnerabilitystress interaction was significant in predicting girls' but not boys' depression trajectories.

These results replicate previous findings of increased NSSs in Vietnam combat veterans with PTSD. Furthermore, results from their combat-unexposed identical co-twins support the conclusion that subtle neurologic dysfunction in PTSD is not acquired along with the trauma or PTSD but rather represents an antecedent familial vulnerability factor for developing chronic PTSD on exposure to a traumatic event.

Religious variables, including religious support and spiritual struggle, might affect recovery from severe mental illnesses.