The mitochondrial theory of aging proposes that reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated inside the cell will lead, with time, to increasing amounts of oxidative damage to various cell components. The main site for ROS production is the respiratory chain inside the mitochondria and accumulation of mtDNA mutations, and impaired respiratory chain function have been associated with degenerative diseases and aging. The theory predicts that impaired respiratory chain function will augment ROS production and thereby increase the rate of mtDNA mutation accumulation, which, in turn, will further compromise respiratory chain function. Previously, we reported that mice expressing an error-prone version of the catalytic subunit of mtDNA polymerase accumulate a substantial burden of somatic mtDNA mutations, associated with premature aging phenotypes and reduced lifespan. Here we show that these mtDNA mutator mice accumulate mtDNA mutations in an approximately linear manner. The amount of ROS produced was normal, and no increased sensitivity to oxidative stress-induced cell death was observed in mouse embryonic fibroblasts from mtDNA mutator mice, despite the presence of a severe respiratory chain dysfunction. Expression levels of antioxidant defense enzymes, protein carbonylation levels, and aconitase enzyme activity measurements indicated no or only minor oxidative stress in tissues from mtDNA mutator mice. The premature aging phenotypes in mtDNA mutator mice are thus not generated by a vicious cycle of massively increased oxidative stress accompanied by exponential accumulation of mtDNA mutations. We propose instead that respiratory chain dysfunction per se is the primary inducer of premature aging in mtDNA mutator mice.mitochondria ͉ mtDNA mutator mice T he free radical theory of aging, formulated 50 years ago by Harman (1), proposes that aging and associated degenerative diseases can be attributed to deleterious effects of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Intracellular ROS are primarily generated by the mitochondrial electron transport chain, making the mitochondrial network a prime target of oxidative damage. Building on this, the mitochondrial theory of aging predicts that a vicious cycle contributes to the aging process. (i) Normal metabolism causes ROS production by the electron transport chain. (ii) ROS production induces damage to lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids in mitochondria. (iii) ROS-induced mtDNA mutations lead to the synthesis of functionally impaired respiratory chain subunits, causing respiratory chain dysfunction and augmented ROS production (2). (iv) This vicious cycle is proposed to cause an exponential increase of mtDNA mutations over time, resulting in aging and associated degenerative diseases. A substantial amount of correlative data from morphological, bioenergetic, biochemical, and genetic studies of mammalian tissues supports this theory (3). Mitochondria are larger and fewer in older individuals, and mitochondrial abnormalities such as vacuoles, abnormal cristae, and paracrystalline inclusions...

Many muscular and neurological disorders are associated with mitochondrial dysfunction and are often accompanied by changes in mitochondrial morphology. Mutations in the gene encoding OPA1, a protein required for fusion of mitochondria, are associated with hereditary autosomal dominant optic atrophy type I. Here we show that mitochondrial fragmentation correlates with processing of large isoforms of OPA1 in cybrid cells from a patient with myoclonus epilepsy and ragged-red fibers syndrome and in mouse embryonic fibroblasts harboring an error-prone mitochondrial mtDNA polymerase ␥. Furthermore, processed OPA1 was observed in heart tissue derived from heart-specific TFAM knock-out mice suffering from mitochondrial cardiomyopathy and in skeletal muscles from patients suffering from mitochondrial myopathies such as myopathy encephalopathy lactic acidosis and stroke-like episodes. Dissipation of the mitochondrial membrane potential leads to fast induction of proteolytic processing of OPA1 and concomitant fragmentation of mitochondria. Recovery of mitochondrial fusion depended on protein synthesis and was accompanied by resynthesis of large isoforms of OPA1. Fragmentation of mitochondria was prevented by overexpressing OPA1. Taken together, our data indicate that proteolytic processing of OPA1 has a key role in inducing fragmentation of energetically compromised mitochondria. We present the hypothesis that this pathway regulates mitochondrial morphology and serves as an early response to prevent fusion of dysfunctional mitochondria with the functional mitochondrial network.

We performed global gene expression analyses in mouse hearts with progressive respiratory chain deficiency and found a metabolic switch at an early disease stage. The tissue-specific mitochondrial transcription factor A (Tfam) knockout mice of this study displayed a progressive heart phenotype with depletion of mtDNA and an accompanying severe decline of respiratory chain enzyme activities along with a decreased mitochondrial ATP production rate. These characteristics were observed after 2 weeks of age and became gradually more severe until the terminal stage occurred at 10 -12 weeks of age. Global gene expression analyses with microarrays showed that a metabolic switch occurred early in the progression of cardiac mitochondrial dysfunction. A large number of genes encoding critical enzymes in fatty acid oxidation showed decreased expression whereas several genes encoding glycolytic enzymes showed increased expression. These alterations are consistent with activation of a fetal gene expression program, a well-documented phenomenon in cardiac disease. An increase in mitochondrial mass was not observed until the disease had reached an advanced stage. In contrast to what we have earlier observed in respiratory chain-deficient skeletal muscle, the increased mitochondrial biogenesis in respiratory chain-deficient heart muscle did not increase the overall mitochondrial ATP production rate. The observed switch in metabolism is unlikely to benefit energy homeostasis in the respiratory chain-deficient hearts and therefore likely aggravates the disease. It can thus be concluded that at least some of the secondary gene expression alterations in mitochondrial cardiomyopathy do not compensate but rather directly contribute to heart failure progression.

We recently described a mouse model that reproduces important pathophysiological features of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) mutation diseases. The gene for mouse mitochondrial transcription factor A, Tfam (also called mtTFA), a nucleus-encoded key regulator of mtDNA expression, was targeted with loxP sites (Tfam loxP ) and disrupted in vivo by transgenic expression of cre-recombinase from the muscle creatinine kinase (Ckmm) promoter. This promoter is active from embryonic day 13, and the knockouts had normal respiratory chain function in the heart at birth and developed mitochondrial cardiomyopathy postnatally. In this paper, we describe a heart-knockout strain obtained by mating Tfam loxP mice to animals expressing cre-recombinase from the ␣-myosin heavy chain (Myhca) promoter. This promoter is active from embryonic day 8, and the knockouts had onset of mitochondrial cardiomyopathy during embryogenesis. The age of onset of cardiac respiratory chain dysfunction can thus be controlled by temporal regulation of cre-recombinase expression. Further characterization demonstrated that Ϸ75% of the knockouts died in the neonatal period, whereas, surprisingly, Ϸ25% survived for several months before dying from dilated cardiomyopathy with atrioventricular heart conduction blocks. Modifying gene(s) affect the life span of the knockouts, because Ϸ95% of the knockout offspring from an intercross of the longer-living knockouts survived the neonatal period. Thus, the tissue-specific knockouts we describe here not only reproduce important pathophysiological features of mitochondrial cardiomyopathy but also provide a powerful system by which to identify modifying genes of potential therapeutic value.

Abstract-The purpose of this study was to compare circadian blood pressure and heart rate patterns and other cardiovascular effects of nicotine delivered rapidly (via nasal spray, NNS), slowly (transdermal nicotine, TDN), by cigarette smoking (rapid delivery of nicotine plus other smoke toxins), and placebo NNS. Twelve healthy cigarette smokers were studied on a research ward when they smoked cigarettes (16 per day) or used TDN (15 mg/16 h), NNS (24 1-mg doses per day), or placebo NNS, each for 5 days. There were no significant differences in systolic blood pressure, but diastolic blood pressure was slightly increased during cigarette smoking. Plasma epinephrine, ␤-thromboglobulin, and fibrinogen levels were higher during cigarette smoking than with TDN.

Even though statistically significant differences were observed, the disposition of nicotine does not seem to be changed to a clinically important extent in elderly subjects compared with younger adults.

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Progressive kidney failure is associated with a gradual decrease of renal and nonrenal elimination of nicotine.