All-dielectric optical metasurfaces are a workhorse in nano-optics, because of both their ability to manipulate light in different degrees of freedom and their excellent performance at light frequency conversion. Here, we demonstrate first-time generation of photon pairs via spontaneous parametric-down conversion in lithium niobate quantum optical metasurfaces with electric and magnetic Mie-like resonances at various wavelengths. By engineering the quantum optical metasurface, we tailor the photon-pair spectrum in a controlled way. Within a narrow bandwidth around the resonance, the rate of pair production is enhanced up to 2 orders of magnitude, compared to an unpatterned film of the same thickness and material. These results enable flat-optics sources of entangled photons—a new promising platform for quantum optics experiments.

Lithium niobate is an excellent and widely used material for nonlinear frequency conversion due to its strong optical nonlinearity and broad transparency region. Here, we report the fabrication and experimental investigation of resonant nonlinear metasurfaces for second-harmonic generation based on thin-film lithium niobate. In the fabricated metasurfaces, we observe pronounced Mie-type resonances leading to enhanced second-harmonic generation in the direction normal to the metasurface. We find the largest second-harmonic generation efficiency for the resonance dominated by the electric contributions because its specific field distribution enables the most efficient usage of the largest element of the lithium niobate nonlinear susceptibility tensor. This is confirmed by polarization-resolved second-harmonic measurements, where we study contributions from different elements of the nonlinear susceptibility tensor to the total second-harmonic signal. Our work facilitates establishing lithium niobate as a material for resonant nanophotonics.

Resonant semiconductor metasurfaces are an emerging versatile platform for nonlinear photonics. In this work, we investigate second-harmonic generation from metasurfaces consisting of two-dimensional square arrays of gallium arsenide nanocylinders as a function of the polarization of the fundamental wave. To this end, we perform nonlinear second harmonic microscopy, where the pump wavelength is tuned to the resonances of the metasurfaces. Furthermore, imaging the generated nonlinear signal in Fourier space allows us to analyze the spatial properties of the generated second harmonic. Our experiments reveal that the second harmonic is predominantly emitted into the first diffraction orders of the periodic arrangements, and that its intensity varies with the polarization angle of the fundamental wave. While this can be expected from the structure of the GaAs nonlinear tensor, the characteristics of this variation itself are found to depend on the pump wavelength. Interestingly, we show that the metasurface can reverse the polarization dependence of the second harmonic with respect to an unstructured GaAs wafer. These general observations are confirmed by numerical simulations using a simplified model for the metasurface. Our results provide valuable input for the development of metasurface-based classical and quantum light sources based on parametric processes.

The coupling of two-dimensional materials with optical metasurfaces is a promising avenue to enhance the advantageous properties of both platforms. Here we integrate an ultrathin monolayer of the transition metal dichalcogenide (TMD) MoS2, grown by chemical-vapor deposition, with a silicon metasurface, to obtain a hybrid system with enhanced nonlinear response. To this end, we utilize a metasurface exhibiting resonances with high quality factors, which provides increased optical fields. Using the nonlinearity of the TMD monolayer, these resonantly enhanced fields enable more efficient nonlinear frequency conversion. In particular, we experimentally observe an enhanced efficiency of second-harmonic generation in our hybrid structure. By comparing second-harmonic generation using different photonic resonances, we furthermore identify optimized conditions for the spatial distribution of the local optical fields to maximize the nonlinear response. Our results enable the precise design of hybrid structures consisting from TMDs and metasurfaces for future applications.

The rapid development of optical metasurfaces, 2D ensembles of engineered nanostructures, is presently underpinning a steady drive toward the miniaturization of many optical functionalities and devices. The list of material platforms for optical metasurfaces is rapidly expanding as, over the past few years, we have witnessed a surge in establishing meta-optical elements from high-index, highly transparent materials with strong nonlinear and electro-optic properties. In particular, crystalline lithium niobate (LiNbO 3 ), already a prime material for integrated photonics, has shown great promise for novel meta-optical components, thanks to its large electro-optical coefficient and secondorder nonlinear response and its broad transparency window ranging from the visible to the mid-infrared. Recent advances in nanofabrication technology have indeed marked a new milestone in the miniaturization of LiNbO 3 platforms, hence enabling the first demonstrations of LiNbO 3 -based metasurfaces. These seminal works set a steppingstone toward the realization of ultrathin monolithic nonlinear light sources, efficient quantum sources of correlated photon pairs, as well as electro-optical modulators. Here, we review these recent advances by providing a perspective on their potential applications and examining the possible setbacks and limitations of these emerging technologies.

Aim: A high-fat diet (HFD) is generally considered to negatively influence the body, the brain, and cognition. Nonetheless, fat and fatty acids are essential for nourishing and constructing brain tissue. Astrocytes are central for lipolysis and fatty acids metabolism. We tested how HFD affects astrocyte metabolism, morphology, and physiology. Methods:We used Raman microspectroscopy to assess the redox state of mitochondria and lipid content in astrocytes and neurons in hippocampal slices of mice subjected to HFD. Astrocytes were loaded with fluorescent dye through patch pipette for morphological analysis. Whole-cell voltage-clamp recordings were performed to measure transporter and potassium currents. Western blot analysis quantified the expression of astrocyte-specific proteins. Field potential recordings measured the magnitude of long-term potentiation (LTP). Open filed test was performed to evaluate the effect of HFD on animal behavior. Results:We found that exposure of young mice to 1 month of HFD increases lipid content and relative amount of reduced cytochromes in astrocytes but not in neurons. Metabolic changes were paralleled with an enlargement of astrocytic territorial domains due to an increased outgrowth of branches and leaflets.See related editorial: Mongin A. A. 2022. Astrocytes on "cholesteroids": The size-and function-promoting effects of a high-fat diet on hippocampal astroglia. Acta Physiol (Oxf). e13859.

Saturable optical elements lie at the cornerstone of many modern optical systems. Regularly patterned quasi-planar nanostructuresmetasurfacesare known to facilitate nonlinear optical processes. Such subwavelength semiconductor nanostructures can potentially serve as saturable components. Here we report on the intensity-dependent reflectance of femtosecond laser pulses from semiconductor metasurfaces with Mie-type modes, caused by the absorption saturation. Arrays of GaAs nanocylinders with magnetic dipole resonances in the spectral vicinity of the GaAs bandgap demonstrate a reduced saturation intensity and increased selfmodulation efficiency, an order of magnitude higher than bulk GaAs or unstructured GaAs films. By contrast, the reflection modulation is shown to be negligible in the CW regime for the same average intensities, indicating that the process is not the result of temperature effects. Our work provides a novel idea for low-power saturable elements based on nonthermal nature of saturation. We conclude by devising a high-quality metasurface that can be used, in theory, to further reduce the saturation fluence below 50 nJ/cm 2 .

Orchestrated activity of different cell types and their interactions within the brain active milieu provide the cellular basis for brain functions. Locomotion triggers a coordinated response of both neurons and astrocytes in various brain regions. Here we performed calcium (Ca2+) imaging of these two cell types in the somatosensory cortex in head-fixed mice moving on the airlifted platform. Ca2+ activity in astrocytes significantly increased during locomotion from a low baseline level during animal quiescence. Ca2+ signals first appeared in the distal processes and then propagated to astrocytic somata. In somata, Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) elevations became significantly larger and exhibited oscillatory behaviour. Hence, astrocytic soma operates as both integrator and amplifier of Ca2+ signal. In contrast to astrocytes, pronounced Ca2+ activity was detected in neurons in quiescent periods, and it further increased during locomotion. Neuronal [Ca2+]i rose almost immediately following the onset of locomotion, whereas astrocytic Ca2+ signals lagged by several seconds. Such a long lag suggests that astrocytic [Ca2+]i elevations are unlikely to be triggered by the activity of synapses among local neurons. Next, we compared Ca2+ responses to pairs of consecutive episodes of locomotion (paired-run ratio). Neurons reliably responded to each episode, whereas [Ca2+]i elevations in astrocytes were significantly diminished in response to the second locomotion. This refractory period in astrocytes may arise from distinct mechanisms underlying Ca2+ signal generation. In neurons, the bulk of Ca2+ enters through the Ca2+ channels in the plasma membrane allowing for steady-level Ca2+ elevations in repetitive runs. Astrocytic Ca2+ responses originate from the intracellular stores, the depletion of which affects subsequent Ca2+ signals. Functionally, neuronal Ca2+ response is primary and reflects sensory input processed by neurons. Astrocytic Ca2+ dynamics is secondary and likely to participate in regulation of metabolic and homeostatic support of intercellular communication and plasticity within the brain active milieu.