Climate surfaces are digital representations of climatic variables from a region in the planet estimated via geographical interpolation techniques. Climate surfaces have multiple applications in research planning, experimental design, and technology transfer. Although high-resolution climatologies have been developed worldwide, Mexico is one of the few countries that have developed several climatic surfaces. Here, we present an updated high-resolution (30 arc sec) climatic surfaces for Mexico for the average monthly climate period 1910-2009, corresponding to monthly values of precipitation, daily maximum, and minimum temperature, as well as 19 bioclimatic variables derived from the monthly precipitation and temperature values. To produce these surfaces we applied the thin-plate smoothing spline interpolation algorithm implemented in the ANUSPLIN software to nearly 5000 climate weather stations countrywide. As an additional product and unlike the previous efforts, we generated monthly standard error surfaces for the three climate parameters, which can be used for error assessment when using these climate surfaces. Our climate surface predicted slightly drier and cooler conditions than the previous ones. ANUSPLIN diagnostic statistics indicated that model fit was adequate. We implemented a more recent error assessment, a set of withheld stations to perform an independent evaluation of the model surfaces. We estimate the mean absolute error and mean error, with the withheld data and all the available data. Average RTGCV for monthly temperatures was of 1.26-1.12 • C and 24.67% for monthly precipitation, and a RTMSE of 0.48-0.56 • C and 11.11%. The main advantage of the surfaces presented here regarding the other three developed for the country is that ours cover practically the entire 20th century and almost the entire first decade of the 21st century. It is the most up to date high-resolution climatology for the country.

Evaluation of various climate change factors on Mexican bird populations shows temperature has the strongest influence.

Spatial assessments of historical climate change provide information that can be used by scientists to analyze climate variation over time and evaluate, for example, its effects on biodiversity, in order to focus their research and conservation efforts. Despite the fact that there are global climatic databases available at high spatial resolution, they represent a short temporal window that impedes evaluating historical changes of climate and their impacts on biodiversity. To fill this gap, we developed climate gridded surfaces for Mexico for three periods that cover most of the 20 th and early 21 st centuries: t 1 -1940 (1910–1949), t 2 -1970 (1950–1979) and t 3 -2000 (1980–2009), and used these interpolated surfaces to describe how climate has changed over time, both countrywide and in its 19 biogeographic provinces. Results from our characterization of climate change indicate that the mean annual temperature has increased by nearly 0.2°C on average across the whole country from t 2 -1970 to t 3 -2000. However, changes have not been spatially uniform: Nearctic provinces in the north have suffered higher temperature increases than southern tropical regions. Central and southern provinces cooled at the beginning of the 20 th century but warmed consistently since the 1970s. Precipitation increased between t 1 -1940 and t 2 -1970 across the country, more notably in the northern provinces, and it decreased between t 2 - 1970 and t 3 - 2000 in most of the country. Results on the historical climate conditions in Mexico may be useful for climate change analyses for both environmental and social sciences. Nonetheless, our climatology was based on information from climate stations for which 9.4–36.2% presented inhomogeneities over time probably owing to non-climatic factors, and climate station density changed over time. Therefore, the estimated changes observed in our analysis need to be interpreted cautiously.

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Antecedentes y Objetivos: Uno de los géneros de árboles más diversos y ecológicamente importantes de los trópicos es Ficus. La caracterización de las fases de desarrollo y cambios morfológicos de su sicono es fundamental para facilitar los estudios de polinización y dispersión, pero estos aspectos solo se han caracterizado en pocas especies en América. Ficus pringlei es endémico de México y no se dispone de información detallada sobre su distribución potencial y aspectos reproductivos. Este estudio tuvo como objetivo describir las fases del desarrollo del sicono de F. pringlei, determinar su tipo de polinización, y detectar áreas con ambientes potencialmente adecuados para localizarlo. Métodos: Se recolectaron siconos para describir las diferentes fases de su desarrollo. Los siconos y sus avispas polinizadoras se fijaron en alcohol para ser procesadas y descritas mediante microscopía electrónica de barrido. Se usaron modelos de nicho ecológico para predecir áreas con ambientes adecuados para localizar a F. pringlei. Resultados clave: El sicono cambió de tamaño, color, consistencia y forma del ostiolo durante sus fases de desarrollo; particularmente en las etapas más críticas de su interacción con polinizadores o dispersores. Se registró un desarrollo asincrónico, tanto a nivel individual, como poblacional, de los siconos. Ficus pringlei presenta una polinización activa. El área potencialmente adecuada de distribución se concentró principalmente en los bosques tropicales secos de los estados de Jalisco y Michoacán. La variable más importante para explicar el modelo de distribución de F. pringlei fue la estacionalidad de la temperatura, con valores mayores en las zonas al norte de la Faja Volcánica Transmexicana. Conclusiones: Las diferentes fases de desarrollo de esta especie son consistentes con las descritas previamente para otras especies monoicas. Ficus pringlei solo se distribuye en el occidente de México, principalmente en bosques tropicales secos y se encuentra minoritariamente en Áreas Protegidas. Por lo tanto, es importante establecer estrategias que aseguren su conservación.

Abstract. Humans greatly benefit from natural water resources, also known as hydrological ecosystem services. However, these services may be reduced by population growth, land use changes, and climate change. As these problems become more critical, the need to quantify water resources increases. The estimation of water yield and its distribution are of great importance for the management of water resources. In the present study, the average annual water yield of the hydrographic basins in the southern region of Ecuador was estimated for the 1970–2015 period using the InVEST water yield model based on the Budyko framework. The model estimates annual surface run-off at the pixel, sub-basin, and basin level considering the following variables: precipitation, actual evapotranspiration, land cover/use, soil depth, and available water content for plants. The model was calibrated by varying the ecohydrological parameter Z to reduce error between estimated and observed water yield. The results showed that the modeling of water yield in the majority of the hydrographic basins was satisfactory, allowing the basins to be ranked according to their importance for water production. The Mayo and Zamora basins had the highest water production, corresponding with 934 and 1218 mm per year, respectively, while the Alamor and Catamayo basins had the lowest water production, corresponding with 206 and 291 mm per year, respectively. The present study provides an initial estimate of water yield at the basin level in the southern region of Ecuador, and the results can be used to evaluate the impacts of land cover changes and climate change over time.

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