This article describes color naming by 51 American English-speaking informants. A free-naming task produced 122 monolexemic color terms, with which informants named the 330 Munsell samples from the World Color Survey. Cluster analysis consolidated those terms into a glossary of 20 named color categories: the 11 Basic Color Term (BCT) categories of Berlin and Kay (1969, p. 2) plus nine nonbasic chromatic categories. The glossed data revealed two color-naming motifs: the green-blue motif of the World Color Survey and a novel green-teal-blue motif, which featured peach, teal, lavender, and maroon as high-consensus terms. Women used more terms than men, and more women expressed the novel motif. Under a constrained-naming protocol, informants supplied BCTs for the color samples previously given nonbasic terms. Most of the glossed nonbasic terms from the free-naming task named low-consensus colors located at the BCT boundaries revealed by the constrained-naming task. This study provides evidence for continuing evolution of the color lexicon of American English, and provides insight into the processes governing this evolution.

Human uncoupling protein 3 ( UCP3 ) is a mitochondrial transmembrane carrier that uncouples oxidative ATP phosphorylation. With the capacity to participate in thermogenesis and energy balance, UCP3 is an important obesity candidate gene. A missense polymorphism in exon 3 (V102I) was identified in an obese and diabetic proband. A mutation introducing a stop codon in exon 4 (R143X) and a terminal polymorphism in the splice donor junction of exon 6 were also identified in a compound heterozygote that was morbidly obese and diabetic. Allele frequencies of the exon 3 and exon 6 splice junction polymorphisms were determined and found to be similar in Gullah-speaking African Americans and the Mende tribe of Sierra Leone, but absent in Caucasians. Moreover, in exon 6-splice donor heterozygotes, basal fat oxidation rates were reduced by 50%, and the respiratory quotient was markedly increased compared with wild-type individuals, implicating a role for UCP3 in metabolic fuel partitioning.

No abstract

366in over 150 subsequently evaluated children with autism, in whom the main gastrointestinal presentation was abdominal pain and either constipation or diarrhea. 2 It remains unclear whether this inflammation is characteristic for autism in general or found only in a subgroup with gastrointestinal symptoms. In view of striking recent increases in autistic spectrum disorders in both the United Kingdom and the United States, 3,4 this required further study.A preliminary report in 12 children with regressive autism described unexpected colonic inflammation in association with ileal lymphoid nodular hyColonic CD8 and γδ T-cell infiltration with epithelial damage in children with autism Objectives:We have reported colitis with ileal lymphoid nodular hyperplasia (LNH) in children with regressive autism. The aims of this study were to characterize this lesion and determine whether LNH is specific for autism.Methods: Ileo-colonoscopy was performed in 21 consecutively evaluated children with autistic spectrum disorders and bowel symptoms. Blinded comparison was made with 8 children with histologically normal ileum and colon, 10 developmentally normal children with ileal LNH, 15 with Crohn's disease, and 14 with ulcerative colitis. Immunohistochemistry was performed for cell lineage and functional markers, and histochemistry was performed for glycosaminoglycans and basement membrane thickness.Results: Histology demonstrated lymphocytic colitis in the autistic children, less severe than classical inflammatory bowel disease. However, basement membrane thickness and mucosal γδ cell density were significantly increased above those of all other groups including patients with inflammatory bowel disease. CD8 + density and intraepithelial lymphocyte numbers were higher than those in the Crohn's disease, LNH, and normal control groups; and CD3 and plasma cell density and crypt proliferation were higher than those in normal and LNH control groups. Epithelial, but not lamina propria, glycosaminoglycans were disrupted. However, the epithelium was HLA-DR -, suggesting a predominantly T H 2 response.Interpretation: Immunohistochemistry confirms a distinct lymphocytic colitis in autistic spectrum disorders in which the epithelium appears particularly affected. This is consistent with increasing evidence for gut epithelial dysfunction in autism. (J Pediatr 2001;138:366-72)

We analyzed the World Color Survey (WCS) color-naming data set by using k-means cluster and concordance analyses. Cluster analysis relied on a similarity metric based on pairwise Pearson correlation of the complete chromatic color-naming patterns obtained from individual WCS informants. When K, the number of k-means clusters, varied from 2 to 10, we found that (i) the average color-naming patterns of the clusters all glossed easily to single or composite English patterns, and (ii) the structures of the k-means clusters unfolded in a hierarchical way that was reminiscent of the Berlin and Kay sequence of color category evolution. Gap statistical analysis showed that 8 was the optimal number of WCS chromatic categories: RED, GREEN, YELLOW-OR-ORANGE, BLUE, PURPLE, BROWN, PINK, and GRUE (GREEN-OR-BLUE). Analysis of concordance in color naming within WCS languages revealed small regions in color space that exhibited statistically significantly high concordance across languages. These regions agreed well with five of six primary focal colors of English. Concordance analysis also revealed boundary regions of statistically significantly low concordance. These boundary regions coincided with the boundaries associated with English WARM and COOL. Our results provide compelling evidence for similarities in the mechanisms that guide the lexical partitioning of color space among WCS languages and English.basic color terms ͉ cluster analysis ͉ color naming ͉ concordance ͉ World Color Survey L anguages differ greatly in how basic color terms are used to name colors. Until the late 1960s, the prevailing view was that differences in color naming occur as a result of cultural factors, which were thought to operate through language to influence strongly individuals' awareness of their chromatic environment (e.g., ref. 1). Then Berlin and Kay (2) advanced a very different view, based on their review of 98 world languages, 20 of which they studied empirically. Although Berlin, Kay, and their colleagues (3-5) have modified some details of their original proposals over the years, two central principles remain: (i) a universal set of processes constrains the lexical encoding of color, and (ii) nearly all languages partition color space lexically into a modest number of categories, which are drawn from a limited set of allowable color categories, including those categories found in English plus certain composite combinations of them. For the past 35 years, these ''universalist'' principles have shaped the debate regarding how the chromatic properties of the environment become part of the language and thought of a culture.In the years that followed Berlin and Kay's landmark monograph, many scholars were critical of the small number of (mostly bilingual) subjects and the modest number of languages chosen for empirical study (for review, see ref. 6). Partly in response to this difficulty, Kay and his coworkers collected a massive database of color-naming data and focal color data known as the World Color Survey [WCS; (ref. 5)]. The test mat...