Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus affects livestock worldwide. There are seven different serotypes, each with a diversity of topotypes, genetic lineages and strains. Some lineages have different properties that may contribute to sporadic spread beyond their recognized endemic areas. The objective of this study was to review the most significant FMD epidemiological events that took place worldwide between 2007 and 2014. Severe epidemics were caused by FMD virus (FMDV) lineage O/Asia/Mya-98 in Japan and South Korea in 2010, both previously free of disease. In India, where FMD is endemic, the most important event was the re-emergence of lineage O/ME-SA/Ind-2001 in 2008. Notably, this lineage, normally restricted to India, Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan, was also found in Saudi Arabia and Libya in 2013 and has caused several outbreaks in Tunisia and Algeria in 2014-2015. In January 2011, FMDV-positive wild boars were found in Bulgaria, where the disease last occurred in 1996, followed by 12 outbreaks in livestock infected with FMDV O/ME-SA/PanAsia2. In 2012, FMDV SAT2 caused outbreaks in Egypt and the Palestinian Autonomous Territories. Another significant event was the emergence of FMDV Asia1 Sindh-08 in the Middle East. In South America, one outbreak of FMDV serotype O, topotype Euro-SA was reported in Paraguay in 2011, which was recognized as FMD-free with vaccination at the time. Lessons learned from past events, point out the need for an integrated strategy that comprises coordinated global and regional efforts for FMDV control and surveillance. Specific local characteristics related to host, environment and virus that condition FMD occurrence should be carefully considered and incorporated to adapt appropriate strategies into local plans. In this review, we compiled relevant epidemiological FMD events to provide a global overview of the current situation. We further discussed current challenges present in different FMD areas.

Salmonella 4,[5],12:i:- currently circulating in swine in the US Midwest are likely to be part of an emerging multidrug-resistant clade first reported in Europe, and can carry plasmid-mediated resistance genes that may be transmitted horizontally to other bacteria, and thus may represent a public health concern.

Social network analysis (SNA) and graph theory have been used widely in sociology, psychology, anthropology, biology and medicine. Social network analysis and graph theory provide a conceptual framework to study contact patterns and to identify units of analysis that are frequently or intensely connected within the network. Social network analysis has been used in human epidemiology as a tool to explore the potential transmission of infectious agents such as HIV, tuberculosis, hepatitis B and syphilis. In preventive veterinary medicine, SNA is an approach that offers benefits for exploring the nature and extent of the contacts between animals or farms, which ultimately leads to a better understanding of the potential risk for disease spread in a susceptible population. Social network analysis, however, has been applied only recently in preventive veterinary medicine, therefore the characteristics of the technique and the potential benefits of its use remain unknown for an important section of the international veterinary medicine community. The objectives of this paper were to review the concepts and theoretical aspects underlying the use of SNA and graph theory, with particular emphasis on their application to the study of infectious diseases of animals. The paper includes a review of recent applications of SNA in preventive veterinary medicine and a discussion of the potential uses and limitations of this methodology for the study of animal diseases.

Since July 2009, there has been a community outbreak of leishmaniasis in the south-west area of the Madrid autonomous community, Spain, affecting residents from four towns that are geographically close together and share extensive park areas. As of December 2012, 446 cases were reported (6 in 2009, 97 in 2010, 196 in 2011 and 147 in 2012), a mean incidence rate of 22.2 per 100,000 inhabitants during July 2009 and December 2012. The mean age was 44 years (range: 2 months to 95 years); 61.0% were male. A total of 68 (15.2%) had immunosuppressive conditions; 160 (35.9%) had visceral leishmaniasis and 286 (64.1%) cutaneous. A total of 421 (94.4%) cases were confirmed. Leishmania infantum was identified as the agent. Monitoring revealed high densities of the vector Phlebotomus perniciosus. The surveillance system for canine leishmaniasis did not detect any increase in prevalence during the period. Environmental control measures have been taken, such as improvements in sanitation and disinsection in the risk areas and control of the overpopulation of Leporidae, as xenodiagnosis studies have shown that hares play a role as active reservoirs. This is the largest reported community outbreak of leishmaniasis in Europe. The discovery of the new reservoir stands out in the multifactorial aetiology of the outbreak. Epidemiological research and environmental intervention measures are continuing.

We have developed a simple and sensitive method for the detection of influenza A virus based on giant magnetoresistance (GMR) biosensor. This assay employs monoclonal antibodies to viral nucleoprotein (NP) in combination with magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs). Presence of influenza virus allows the binding of MNPs to the GMR sensor and the binding is proportional to the concentration of virus. Binding of MNPs onto the GMR sensor causes change in the resistance of sensor, which is measured in a real time electrical readout. GMR biosensor detected as low as 1.5 × 102 TCID50/mL virus and the signal intensity increased with increasing concentration of virus up to 1.0 × 105 TCID50/mL. This study showed that the GMR biosensor assay is relevant for diagnostic application since the virus concentration in nasal samples of influenza virus infected swine was reported to be in the range of 103 to 105 TCID50/mL.

Influenza A virus (IAV) is a common respiratory pathogen infecting many hosts including humans, pigs (swine influenza virus or SIV), and birds (avian influenza virus or AIV). Monitoring swine and avian influenza viruses in the wild, farms, and live poultry markets is of great significance for human and veterinary public health. A portable, sensitive, and quantitative immunoassay device will be of high demand especially in the rural and resource-limited areas. We report herein our Z-Lab point-of-care (POC) device for sensitive and specific detection of swine influenza viruses with minimum sample handling and laboratory skill requirements. In the present study, a portable and quantitative immunoassay platform based on giant magnetoresistive (GMR) technology is used for the detection of IAV nucleoprotein (NP) and purified H3N2v. Z-Lab displays quantitative results in less than 10 min with sensitivities down to 15 ng/mL and 125 TCID/mL for IAV nucleoprotein and purified H3N2v, respectively. This platform allows lab-testing to be performed outdoors and opens up the applications of immunoassays in nonclinical settings.

Reports from surveillance activities were analyzed to determine the epidemiology of the re-emergence of infectious salmon anemia virus (ISAV) in Atlantic salmon farms in Chile. The epidemic and spatial and spatiotemporal patterns were described, taking into account commercial compartmentalization of the farms. During the 64 wk study period, 76 ISAV-infected salmon farms, representing 17 companies, were reported in 65% of the management geographic zones of the 10th region in southern Chile. Approximately 20% of the farms at risk became infected, with the incidence rate increasing slightly over time. Results from epidemic analyses and observed spatial and spatiotemporal patterns suggested an initial dispersal and subsequent clustering of cases around the index case (IC) in a propagated epidemic mode. Results suggested that delayed depopulation may have been a key factor in the spread and persistence of ISAV. Clustering of cases supported the assumption that passive transmission in seawater from ISAV-infected farms (proximity) is a critical factor in controlling disease. The re-emergence of ISAV in Chile has resulted in one of the largest ISAV epidemics reported in the world and this study generates new hypotheses and provides useful information for spatial disease control planning in salmon farming areas.

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