An accurate charge density study of trialanine is presented with the maximum entropy method (MEM), on the basis of the same reflection data as was used for a multipole refinement [Rödel et al. (2006). Org. Biomol. Chem. 4, 475-481]. With the MEM, the optimum fit to the data is found to correspond to a final value of chi(2) which is less than its statistical expectation value N(Ref), where N(Ref) is the number of reflections. A refinement strategy is presented that determines the optimal goal for chi(2). It is shown that the MEM and the multipole method are on a par with regard to the reproduction of atomic charges and volumes, general topological features and trends in the charge density in the bond critical points (BCPs). Regarding the values of the charge densities in the BCPs, agreement between quantum chemical calculations, the multipole method and MEM is good, but not perfect. In the case of the Laplacians, the coincidence is not as good and especially the Laplacians of the C-O bonds differ strongly. One of the reasons for the observed differences in the topological parameters in the BCPs is the fact that MEM densities still include the effects of thermal motion, whereas multipole densities are free from the effects of thermal motion. Hydrogen bonds are more convincingly reproduced by the MEM than by multipole models.

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Highly p-doped regions in multicrystalline silicon solar cells, such as the back surface field region, are analyzed by means of small angle beveling and micro-Raman spectroscopy. Small angle beveling and subsequent Secco etching are used to enhance the lateral resolution of the micro-Raman spectroscopic measurements and to investigate the microstructure of the back surface field region in detail. The position-dependent analysis of the free carrier concentrations within the back surface field region is based on the Raman specific Fano resonances. The Raman spectroscopic measurement results are compared to results obtained from electrochemical capacitance-voltage measurements, which allows a subsequent calibration of the Raman data for the quantitative analysis of the free carrier concentrations within the highly p-doped regions of silicon solar cells and other devices. Our investigations show that the free carrier as well as the dopant concentration profiles within the back surface field region exhibit a nearly step-functional shape instead of the extended gradient shape which the electrochemical capacitance-voltage measurements suggest. Moreover, we show that the shape of the back surface field is often influenced by grain boundaries and other defects that occur in multicrystalline silicon wafers.