Ferroportin, the only mammalian iron exporter identified to date, is highly expressed in duodenal enterocytes and in macrophages. Several lines of evidence indicate that in enterocytes the iron export mediated by ferroportin occurs and is regulated at the basolateral cell surface, where the transporter is strongly expressed. By contrast, in macrophages, ferroportin has been shown in intracellular vesicles. We used a high-affinity antibody to specify the localization of endogenous ferroportin expressed in primary culture of bone marrow-derived macrophages, in both basal and induced conditions. Our observations indicate that ferroportin is expressed in vesicular compartments that can reach the plasma membrane of macrophages. Of importance, when ferroportin expression was up-regulated through iron treatment or erythrophagocytosis, ferroportin expression was strongly enhanced at the plasma membrane of macrophages. Moreover, hepcidin dramatically reduced macrophage ferroportin protein levels. At the subcellular level, hepcidin was shown to induce rapid internalization and degradation of the macrophage iron exporter. These data are consistent with a direct iron export by ferroportin through the plasma membrane of macrophages and strongly support an efficient posttranscriptional down-regulation of ferroportin by hepcidin in these cells. [metal transporter protein-1], Slc40a1) is the sole iron exporter identified in mammals 1-3 that participates in iron release from both enterocytes of the duodenum and tissue macrophages. Ferroportin is highly expressed in absorptive duodenal enterocytes where it presents a strong basolateral subcellular localization 1-3 and in tissue macrophages in liver (Kupffer cells), spleen, and bone marrow. 1,4,5 Several lines of evidence highlight the importance of this protein in iron homeostasis. Inactivation of the ferroportin gene at the adult stage in mice leads to iron accumulation in enterocytes, Kupffer cells, and splenic macrophages. 6 Ferroportin mutations in human patients with type 4 hemochromatosis induce predominant macrophage iron overload. 7 Finally, ferroportin overexpressed in the macrophage cell line J774 stimulates iron release after erythrophagocytosis. 8 Recently, ferroportin has been shown to be the molecular target of hepcidin. 9 Hepcidin is a major systemic regulator of intestinal iron absorption and iron recycling from macrophages. 10 In epithelial cells, hepcidin was shown to act on the efflux of iron through a direct interaction with ferroportin at the cell surface, leading to internalization and degradation of the iron exporter. 9 Moreover, recent studies have shown that some hemochromatosis-associated ferroportin mutations are unresponsive to hepcidin-mediated internalization. [11][12][13] Of interest, in hepcidin-deficient mice, 14 ferroportin is strongly up-regulated in both enterocytes and macrophages. 15 Hepcidin is also assumed to regulate iron efflux from macrophages 10 because it has been shown that treatment of J774 macrophages with hepcidin decreases ferropo...

Ferroportin [FPN; Slc40a1 (solute carrier family 40, member 1)] is a transmembrane iron export protein expressed in macrophages and duodenal enterocytes. Heterozygous mutations in the FPN gene result in an autosomal dominant form of iron overload disorder, type-4 haemochromatosis. FPN mutants either have a normal iron export activity but have lost their ability to bind hepcidin, or are defective in their iron export function. The mutant protein has been suggested to act as a dominant negative over the wt (wild-type) protein by multimer formation. Using transiently transfected human epithelial cell lines expressing mouse FPN modified by the addition of a haemagglutinin or c-Myc epitope at the C-terminus, we show that the wtFPN is found at the plasma membrane and in Rab5-containing endosomes, as are the D157G and Q182H mutants. However, the delV162 mutant is mostly intracellular in HK2 cells (human kidney-2 cells) and partially addressed at the cell surface in HEK-293 cells (human embryonic kidney 293 cells). In both cell types, it is partially associated with the endoplasmic reticulum and with Rab5-positive vesicles. However, this mutant is complex-glycosylated like the wt protein. D157G and G323V mutants have a defective iron export capacity as judged by their inability to deplete the intracellular ferritin content, whereas Q182H and delV162 have normal iron export function and probably have lost their capacity to bind hepcidin. In co-transfection experiments, the delV162 mutant does not co-localize with the wtFPN, does not prevent its normal targeting to the plasma membrane and cannot be immunoprecipitated in the same complex, arguing against the formation of FPN hetero-oligomers.

RNA-binding activity of IRP1 (iron regulatory protein 1) is regulated by the insertion/extrusion of a [4Fe-4S] cluster into/from the IRP1 molecule. NO (nitic oxide), whose ability to activate IRP1 by removing its [4Fe-4S] cluster is well known, has also been shown to down-regulate expression of the IRP1 gene. In the present study, we examine whether this regulation occurs at the transcriptional level. Analysis of the mouse IRP1 promoter sequence revealed two conserved putative binding sites for transcription factor(s) regulated by NO and/or changes in intracellular iron level: Sp1 (promoter-selective transcription factor 1) and MTF1 (metal transcription factor 1), plus GAS (interferon-γ -activated sequence), a binding site for STAT (signal transducer and activator of transcription) proteins. In order to define the functional activity of these sequences, reporter constructs were generated through the insertion of overlapping fragments of the mouse IRP1 promoter upstream of the luciferase gene. Transient expression assays following transfection of HuH7 cells with these plasmids revealed that while both the Sp1 and GAS sequences are involved in basal transcriptional activity of the IRP1 promoter, the role of the latter is predominant. Analysis of protein binding to these sequences in EMSAs (electrophoretic mobility-shift assays) using nuclear extracts from mouse RAW 264.7 macrophages stimulated to synthesize NO showed a significant decrease in the formation of Sp1-DNA and STAT-DNA complexes, compared with controls. We have also demonstrated that the GAS sequence is involved in NO-dependent down-regulation of IRP1 transcription. Further analysis revealed that levels of STAT5a and STAT5b in the nucleus and cytosol of NO-producing macrophages are substantially lower than in control cells. These findings provide evidence that STAT5 proteins play a role in NO-mediated down-regulation of IRP1 gene expression.

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Introduction. Diabetic neuropathy (DN) is one of the most devastating complications of diabetes mellitus; however, in contrast to other countries, there are no scientific studies in Portugal evaluating the impact of demographic and clinical characteristics of this pathological entity. The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of gender, metabolic control, age of diabetic patients, as well as time of disease progression, the appearance of complaints related to neuropathic pain.Material and methods. A multicentre study with a non-probabilistic, convenience sample of 359 patients was performed employing the quantitative method, using the Statistical Package for Social Science 24 software. The p-value of p < 0.05 was defined to consider a result statistically significant. The Spearman correlation coefficient (r) was determined to determine the relationship between categorical variables.Results. There was no statistically significant difference in the prevalence of DN between genders (p = 0.633 and r = 0.025). There was a statistically significant relationship between the value of HbA1c and DN, with p = 0.010 and r = 0.136. There is a relationship between age and complaints of neuropathic pain, with p = 0.034 and r = 0.112. The variable, time of disease progression, is also correlated with the appearance of complaints of neuropathic pain with p = 0.020 and r = 0.112.Conclusion. The prevalence of neuropathic pain in subjects with diabetes is not negligible and is associated with modifiable risk factors that can be identified, possibly modified and prevented. The correct approach for these patients, which involves screening and early treatment, is decisive improving functionality and quality of life.

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A consagração da Declaração Universal dos Direitos Humanos reivindica, não só o direito à Educação, como também a uma escolarização acessível e de concretização digna para todos. Contudo, tal direito não foi ainda assegurado a todos. Aliás, não basta legislar para que a escola pública garanta o acesso e a participação de todos, quando na realidade as práticas e condições de sucesso não existem efetivamente para todo o universo escolar. Em Portugal, tais premissas são aprofundadas nos Decretos-Lei nº 54 e nº 55 (2018), que assentam no princípio de clarificar a não coincidência entre Inclusão e Educação Especial, sendo esta última apenas uma parte da primeira e não a sua totalidade. Assim, a Escola Inclusiva clama por uma reestruturação organizacional, cultural e pedagógica. Poderemos afirmar que o acesso a uma cultura e prática inclusiva se encontra iminente? Há quem defenda que a filosofia africana ubuntu, marcada pela cosmovisão do homem em busca da realização da comunidade, pode servir-nos de guia para esse propósito.  Não sendo a escola uma estrutura estática, mas estando assolada pelas correntes do neoliberalismo, questionamo-nos: como poderia a filosofia africana ubuntu servir de horizonte de referência para a transformação cultural da Escola, para que aprofunde a Inclusão?