The delayed entry into marriage that characterizes modern society raises questions about young adults' romantic relationship trajectories and whether patterns found to characterize adolescent romantic relationships persist into young adulthood. The current study traced developmental transitions into and out of romantic relationships from age 18 through age 25 in a sample of 511 young adults. The developmental antecedents of these different romantic relationship experiences in both distal and proximal family and peer domains were also examined. Analyses included both person-oriented and variable-oriented approaches. Findings show 5 distinct clusters varying in timing, duration, and frequency of participation in romantic relationships that range from those who had only recently entered into a romantic relationship to those who had been in the same relationship from age 18 to age 25. These relationship outcome trajectory clusters were predicted by variations in competence in early relationships with family and peers. Interpersonal experiences in family and peer contexts in early childhood through adolescence thus may form a scaffold on which later competence in romantic relationships develops. Findings shed light on both normative and nonnormative developmental transitions of romantic relationships in young adulthood.

Risks associated with less satisfying intimate relationships often co-occur within individuals, raising questions about approaches that consider only their independent impact. Utilizing the cumulative risk model, which acknowledges the natural covariation of risk factors, this study examined individuals in intimate relationships using the Florida Family Formation Survey (n = 2,876) and a replication sample (n = 1,048). Analyses confirmed that not only was relationship satisfaction lower among those with more risks, but the cumulative risk score was predictive above and beyond the individual risk factors. Furthermore, experiencing multiple risks exacerbated the negative associations between individual risks and relationship satisfaction, suggesting that the operation of a risk factor in a relationship is moderated by the presence or absence of other risks. Keywordsmarriage and close relationships; relationship processes; satisfaction; social context Individuals who are satisfied with their intimate relationships live longer (House, Landis, & Umberson, 1988), are physically healthier (Kiecolt-Glaser & Newton, 2001), and are better parents (Grych & Fincham, 1990) than people who are less satisfied with their relationships. Accordingly, it is not surprising that satisfaction in a relationship is one of the best predictors of general life satisfaction that has been measured, better than financial security, job satisfaction, or physical health (Glenn & Weaver, 1981). The promise of satisfying relationships has long been known to researchers, but in the last decade the benefits of satisfying intimate relationships have also been recognized by policymakers. In 2006, for example, the federal government allocated $750 million over 5 years toward the Healthy Marriage Initiative, explicitly aimed at promoting marriages that are not only enduring but fulfilling as well (Roberts, 2005).If policy efforts to promote satisfying relationships are to succeed, they must target the individuals most likely to benefit from extra support. To this end, researchers have sought to identify risk factors for experiencing distress in relationships, where risk factors are defined as individual or environmental hazards that increase individuals' vulnerability to experiencing negative outcomes (e.g., Werner & Smith, 1982). This research has been largely successful, (Karney & Bradbury, 1995). NIH Public AccessAlthough such research has offered important insights into the antecedents and correlates of relationship distress, to date most research has examined variables associated with risk independently from one another. Even studies that assess multiple risk factors at once generally examine the independent associations between each variable and relationship satisfaction, for example, through multiple regression. Yet most people do not experience risk factors independently. Multiple risk factors tend to covary within individuals (e.g., Kraemer, Stice, Kazdin, Offord, & Kupfer, 2001), and so may interact, such that the effects of any sing...

Data from a survey of 200 young adults assessed whether the early nonshared environment, specifically parental differential treatment, was associated with romantic relationship distress through its effects on sibling jealousy, attachment styles, and self-esteem. Individuals who received equal affection from their parents in comparison to their sibling reported equal jealousy between themselves and their sibling, had higher self-esteem, more secure attachment styles, and less romantic relationship distress. Receiving differential parental affection, regardless of whether the participant or their sibling was favored, was associated with more negative models of self and others, which in turn were associated with greater romantic relationship distress. Results indicate that early withinfamily experiences may be particularly relevant for later healthy romantic relationship functioning.The achievement of intimacy in close relationships is considered a central developmental task in the early years of adulthood (W. A. Collins & Sroufe, 1999;Conger, Cui, Bryant, & Elder, 2000;Erikson, 1968). The failure to establish and maintain such high-quality relationships is associated with poorer well-being. In particular, individuals in unhappy relationships are more likely to suffer poor physical and mental health, even if their romantic relationships are stable (Beach, Katz, Kim, & Brody, 2003;Kiecolt-Glaser & Newton, 2001). Given the importance of romantic relationship quality for well-being, researchers have sought to understand the developmental roots of the ability to both initiate and maintain high-quality romantic relationships (Conger et al., 2000). Research has demonstrated that experiences in the early familial environment contribute to romantic relationship functioning, such that individuals who grow up in families characterized by nurturing parenting have higher quality romantic relationships as adults than do individuals who grow up with parents characterized as distant or cold (Black & Schutte, 2006;Donnellan, Larsen-Rife, & Conger, 2005).Although research has recognized the importance of early childhood experiences for the development of competence in intimate relationships, only recently have researchers begun to examine the sibling relationship as being a significant aspect of the early family environment (L. R. Brody, Copeland, Sutton, Richardson, & Guyer, 1998). The roots of this emerging interest in sibling influences can be traced to the investigation of the developmental impact of the nonshared environment, defined as any environmental experience that differs for children growing up in the same family (i.e., being treated differently by parents and one's own siblings; Baker & Daniels, 1990;Daniels & Plomin, 1985). These differences can be quite pronounced as the differential experiences of children within the same family are often greater than the experiences of children from different families (Plomin & Daniels, 1987). These differences, whether perceived or actual, have important implications for i...

Religion is important to most U.S. families, but is often overlooked in research on children’s development. This study examined parental religious beliefs about the sanctification of parenting, parental disciplinary strategies, and the development of young children’s conscience in a sample of 58 two-parent families with a preschool child. Fathers were more punitive and used less induction when disciplining their children than did mothers. Maternal and paternal reports of the sanctification of parenting were positively related to positive socialization/praise and the use of induction. When mothers and fathers in the family were both using induction, children had higher scores on moral conduct. Parents’ use of positive socialization combined with a belief in the sanctification of parenting predicted children’s conscience development.

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Previous work has underscored the robust links between sanctification of marriage and marital outcomes, and recent developments in the literature suggest that compassionate love, which is important for intimate relationships, may act as a mediator of that relationship. Accordingly, the current study used actor-partner interdependence models to examine the relationship between a spiritual cognition (i.e., perceived sacred qualities of marriage) and marital satisfaction, and to determine whether that relationship is mediated by compassionate love, in a sample of older married couples (N = 64). Results revealed that wives' greater sacred qualities of marriage were significantly and positively linked to marital satisfaction on the part of both spouses, and that these links were partially mediated by couples' reports of compassionate love. These findings highlight the importance of moving beyond simply establishing the existence of the link between global markers of involvement of religion and marriage to understanding how specific spiritual cognitions may foster better relationship quality, especially among older couples.

In the past several decades, a number of largely atheoretical individual and meta-analytic studies of couple relationship education (CRE) programs have focused on program effectiveness without considerations of how these programs work and for whom. To address this gap in the literature, the current study drew upon assumptions from social-cognitive and behavioral theories that are implicit in CRE design to assess the influence of short-term changes from pre- to posttreatment in behaviors and commitment on changes in relationship quality among a racially and economically diverse group of 2,824 individuals who participated in a CRE program. Findings from structural equation modeling indicated that the best-fitting model for both men and women was one in which changes in behaviors predicted changes in relationship quality via their influence on changes in commitment. Further, a series of moderational analyses provided some evidence to suggest that the strength of the relationships between these variables may depend to a small extent on the social address of the participants (race, income) and to a greater extent on characteristics of the CRE experience (i.e., beginning the class at lower levels of functioning, attending with a partner). Findings help us begin to understand the influences among domains of change that occur as a result of participating in a CRE program, as well as offering some useful information to practitioners on demographic and contextual moderators of program outcomes. Implications for future research on the mechanisms of change for CRE are presented.

In a diverse community sample of 241 married couples, we examined received psychological abuse (PA) as a longitudinal predictor of men's and women's sleep. Participants reported on marital functioning and mental health during three assessments (T1, T2, T3) and sleep problems during two assessments (T2, T3), with 1-year lags between waves. Growth curve analyses revealed that for both spouses, higher initial levels of PA and increases in PA over time predicted greater sleep disturbances at T3. For husbands and wives, anxiety and depression mediated some of the associations between PA and sleep problems. For wives, moderation effects highlighted the importance of violence, anxiety, and depression in exacerbating sleep problems associated with PA. Results build on and contribute significantly to the scant literature implicating the importance of the marital relationship for sleep and suggest that simultaneous consideration of intrapersonal and interpersonal variables is critical when explicating sleep disruptions. Keywordssleep; marriage; psychological abuse; violence; mental health Poor sleep is associated with increased risk for numerous psychological, physical health, and cognitive problems (e.g., Dew et al., 2003;Eguchi et al., 2008). Corresponding with the growing evidence highlighting the importance of sleep for well-being, there is increasing interest in identifying family relationship variables associated with sleep problems (Krueger & Friedman, 2009). We examined a common stressor, namely psychological abuse (PA), in the marital relationship, as a key determinant of the quality of people's sleep over time.Sleep is an inherently vulnerable state that is facilitated by feelings of safety in one's environment (Dahl & El-Sheikh, 2007;Troxel, Robles, Hall, & Buysse, 2007). For individuals who share this environment, the decrease in vigilance needed for sleep entails a level of trust and security with one's sleep partner. But what if one's partner not only fails to provide a sense of security, but actually increases the individual's anxiety? Recent work suggests that anxiety originating in one's social relationships is linked to sleep difficulties for both men and women (Carmichael & Reis, 2005). The antecedents and correlates of this relationship-centered anxiety and particular relationship factors associated with sleep, however, have not been explicated.We propose that PA, defined here as the use of intimate knowledge of a person's vulnerabilities or even strengths as a weapon against him or her (Jones, Davidson, Bogat, Levendosky, & von Eye, 2005;Marshall, 1994), is likely to lead to sleep problems for the Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Amy J. Rauer, Human Development and Family Studies, 203 Spidle Hall, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849-5214. arauer@auburn.edu. NIH Public AccessAuthor Manuscript J Fam Psychol. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2011 December 1. NIH-PA Author ManuscriptNIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author Manuscript recipient of this abuse. PA is em...