Recently, we have shown that the interaction between NGF and sensory neurons in early postnatal periods is restricted to nociceptive afferents (Ritter et al., 1991; Lewin et al., 1992a; Ritter and Mendell, 1992). Here we show that administration of excess NGF to neonatal or mature animals can lead to a profound behavioral hyperalgesia. Neonatal NGF treatment (postnatal day 0-14) resulted in a profound mechanical hyperalgesia that persisted until the animals had reached maturity (6 weeks of age). This hyperalgesia could be explained by an NGF-mediated sensitization of A delta nociceptive afferents to mechanical stimuli. This peripheral sensitization wore off with a time course similar to that of the behavior hyperalgesia. Treatment of animals from the second postnatal week until 5 weeks of age (juveniles) led to a very similar behavioral hyperalgesia; however, there was no corresponding sensitization of A delta nociceptors to mechanical stimuli. Finally, one group of adult animals (5 weeks old) was treated daily with single injections of NGF for between 1 and 4 d. Within 24 hr after the first NGF injection these animals developed a mechanical hyperalgesia of the same magnitude seen after neonatal and juvenile NGF treatments. No sensitization of A delta nociceptive afferents was observed in these animals. In addition to the mechanical hyperalgesia, the animals also developed a heat hyperalgesia after one injection of NGF. The heat hyperalgesia was apparent within 15 min after the injection; however, signs of mechanical hyperalgesia were not seen until 6 hr after the injection. In conclusion, it appears that the NGF-induced mechanical hyperalgesia is brought about by different mechanisms in neonatal and adult rats. Furthermore, in adult animals the NGF-induced mechanical and heat hyperalgesia also appear to be attributable to two different mechanisms. The mechanical hyperalgesia may be due to central changes (see Lewin et al., 1992b), whereas the heat hyperalgesia is likely to result at least in part from the sensitization of peripheral receptors to heat.

The transmission of pain signals after injury or inflammation depends in part on increased excitability of primary sensory neurons. Nociceptive neurons express multiple subtypes of voltagegated sodium channels (Na V1s), each of which possesses unique features that may influence primary afferent excitability. Here, we examined the contribution of Na V1.9 to nociceptive signaling by studying the electrophysiological and behavioral phenotypes of mice with a disruption of the SCN11A gene, which encodes Na V 1.9. Our results confirm that Na V1.9 underlies the persistent tetrodotoxin-resistant current in small-diameter dorsal root ganglion neurons but suggest that this current contributes little to mechanical thermal responsiveness in the absence of injury or to mechanical hypersensitivity after nerve injury or inflammation. However, the expression of Na V1.9 contributes to the persistent thermal hypersensitivity and spontaneous pain behavior after peripheral inflammation. These results suggest that inflammatory mediators modify the function of NaV1.9 to maintain inflammation-induced hyperalgesia.T he generation and propagation of action potentials in sensory neurons depends on the activity of voltage-gated sodium channels (Na V 1s). The differential expression of Na V 1 subtypes in distinct classes of sensory neurons, combined with their unique biophysical properties, suggest specific roles for each subtype in sensory transmission. Sodium channels in sensory neurons can be classified pharmacologically as sensitive to block by low nanomolar concentrations of tetrodotoxin (TTX) or resistant to Ͼ1 M TTX (1, 2).The contribution of TTX-resistant Na V 1 channel subtypes to the transmission of pain signals is an important area of focus: TTXresistant current carries the majority of charge during action potentials in nociceptive neurons (3), and this current is dynamically regulated in response to injury (4, 5). Na V 1.8, expressed primarily in C-fibers (6), underlies a TTX-resistant current with a high threshold for activation and steady-state inactivation and slow kinetics (7). Comparisons between dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons from WT and Na V 1.8 null mutant (Ϫ͞Ϫ) mice suggest that Na V 1.8 contributes the majority of the inward current flowing during action potentials in small-diameter neurons (8). Antisense oligonucleotides directed against Na V 1.8 implicate this channel in both neuropathic (9) and inflammatory (10) pain conditions in rats, although Na V 1.8Ϫ͞Ϫ mice displayed only a mild phenotype (7,11).The functional role of Na V 1.9, another subtype selectively expressed in nociceptors (12), remains poorly defined. The primary sequence of Na V 1.9 predicts that this subtype conducts sodium currents resistant to TTX (13). Indeed, a second TTX-resistant current is present in DRG neurons from Na V 1.8 knockout mice (14). This current has been referred to as the persistent, TTXresistant current because of its negative threshold for activation and depolarized midpoint of inactivation, resulting in a significant windo...

Neurons classified as nociceptors are dependent on nerve growth factor (NGF) during embryonic development, but a large subpopulation lose this dependence during embryonic and postnatal times and become responsive to the transforming growth factor ␤ family member, glial cell line-derived growth factor (GDNF). To elucidate the functional properties of GDNF-dependent nociceptors and distinguish them from nociceptors that retain NGF dependence, the cellular and physiologic properties of sensory neurons of wild-type and transgenic mice that overexpress GDNF in the skin (GDNF-OE) were analyzed using a skin, nerve, dorsal root ganglion, and spinal cord preparation, immunolabeling, and reverse transcriptase-PCR assays. Although an increase in peripheral conduction velocity of C-fibers in GDNF-OE mice was measured, other electrophysiological properties, including resting membrane potential and somal action potentials, were unchanged. We also show that isolectin B4 (IB4)-positive neurons, many of which are responsive to GDNF, exhibited significantly lower thresholds to mechanical stimulation relative to wild-type neurons. However, no change was observed in heat thresholds for the same population of cells. The increase in mechanical sensitivity was found to correlate with significant increases in acid-sensing ion channels 2A and 2B and transient receptor potential channel A1, which are thought to contribute to detection of mechanical stimuli. These data indicate that enhanced expression of GDNF in the skin can change mechanical sensitivity of IB4-positive nociceptive afferents and that this may occur through enhanced expression of specific types of channel proteins.

Adult skin sensory neurons exhibit characteristic projection patterns in the dorsal horn of the spinal gray matter that are tightly correlated with modality. However, little is known about how these patterns come about during the ontogeny of the distinct subclasses of skin sensory neurons. To this end, we have developed an intact ex vivo somatosensory system preparation in neonatal mice, allowing single, physiologically identified cutaneous afferents to be iontophoretically injected with Neurobiotin for subsequent histological analyses. The present report, centered on rapidly adapting mechanoreceptors, represents the first study of the central projections of identified skin sensory neurons in neonatal animals. Cutaneous afferents exhibiting rapidly adapting responses to sustained natural stimuli were encountered as early as recordings were made. Well-stained representatives of coarse (tylotrich and guard) and fine-diameter (down) hair follicle afferents, along with a putative Pacinian corpuscle afferent, were recovered from 2-7-day-old neonates. All were characterized by narrow, uninflected somal action potentials and generally low mechanical thresholds, and many could be activated via deflection of recently erupted hairs. The central collaterals of hair follicle afferents formed recurrent, flame-shaped arbors that were essentially miniaturized replicas of their adult counterparts, with identical laminar terminations. The terminal arbors of down hair afferents, previously undescribed in rodents, were distinct and consistently occupied a more superficial position than tylotrich and guard hair afferents. Nevertheless, the former extended no higher than the middle of the incipient substantia gelatinosa, leaving a clear gap more dorsally. In all major respects, therefore, hair follicle afferents display the same laminar specificity in neonates as they do in adults. The widely held misperception that their collaterals extend exuberant projections into pain-specific regions of the dorsal horn during early postnatal life is shown to have multiple, deep-rooted underpinnings.

In adult animals, sensory neurons innervating the skin are phenotypically diverse. We have now investigated whether nerve growth factor (NGF) has a physiological role in the development of this diversity. We gave antisera against NGF to rats from postnatal day 1 (PND 1) to adulthood (5 weeks). We found a virtually complete depletion of high threshold mechanoreceptors conducting in the A delta range (2-13 ms-1) in the sural nerve. This afferent type, normally present in large numbers, appeared to have been replaced by D-hair afferents, sensitive mechanoreceptors which normally are relatively rare. NGF deprivation had this effect only in early postnatal life; treatment from postnatal day 14 to adulthood had no effect. We conclude that the presence of NGF postnatally in skin is necessary for the proper phenotypic development of A delta cutaneous nociceptors.

The isolated spinal cord of the chick embryo generates episodes of rhythmic bursting in which sartorius (hip flexor) and femorotibialis (knee extensor) motoneurons exhibit characteristic patterns of activity. At the beginning of each cycle both sets of motoneurons discharge synchronously. Following this brief synchronous activation sartorius motoneurons stop firing at the time of peak femorotibialis activity, producing a period of alternation between the two sets of motoneurons. Intracellular recording from motoneurons has suggested that the pause is mediated by a synaptically induced shunt conductance. However, the pharmacological basis for this shunt and the nature of the excitatory drive to motoneurons is unknown. To address these questions we have investigated the pharmacology of the rhythmic, synaptic drive to lumbosacral motoneurons using local and bath application of several excitatory and inhibitory antagonists, and documenting their effects on motor output in E10-E12 chick embryos. Local application of bicuculline or picrotoxin over sartorius motoneurons abolished the pause in firing recorded from the sartorius muscle nerve. As a consequence, the pattern of sartorius and femorotibialis activity was similar and the motoneurons were coactive. The pause in sartorius firing was shortened following local application of the glycine antagonist strychnine the nicotinic, cholinergic antagonists mecamylamine, and dihydro-beta-erythroidine and several excitatory amino acid antagonists. Application of the GABA uptake inhibitor nipecotic acid depressed the slow potentials and discharge recorded from the sartorius muscle nerve. These findings suggest that the pause is determined primarily by synaptic inputs acting at motoneuron GABAA receptors with contributions from glycinergic, cholinergic, and glutamatergic inputs. The actions of locally applied GABA onto spinal neurons are consistent with these findings because the neurotransmitter depolarizes spinal neurons and reduces their input resistance. Local application of bicuculline, but not strychnine, onto segments containing femorotibialis motoneurons altered the amplitude and duration of femorotibialis discharge and changed the profile of the slow potentials recorded from the muscle nerve. This finding implicates GABAergic inputs in the regulation of femorotibialis discharge. The pause in sartorius firing was still present and a pause in firing appeared in each cycle of femorotibialis discharge following bath application of bicuculline or strychnine. The pause in both sets of motoneurons could be abolished by local application of the NMDA receptor antagonist AP-5 onto the motoneurons, but not by local application of bicuculline. This action of AP-5 was in contrast to its activity in normal Tyrode's solution where it shortened the pause slightly.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

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