English reading comprehension skill development was examined in a group of 87 native Spanishspeakers developing English literacy skills, followed from fourth through fifth grade. Specifically, the effects of Spanish (L1) and English (L2) oral language and word reading skills on reading comprehension were investigated. The participants showed average word reading skills and below average comprehension skills, influenced by low oral language skills. Structural equation modeling confirmed that L2 oral language skills had a large, significant effect on L2 reading comprehension, whereas students' word-level reading skills, whether in L1 or L2, were not significantly related to English reading comprehension in three of four models fitted. The results converge with findings from studies with monolinguals demonstrating the influence of oral language on reading comprehension outcomes, and extend these findings by showing that, for language minority learners, L2 oral language exerts a stronger influence than word reading in models of L2 reading. KeywordsEnglish language learners; reading comprehension; vocabulary; structural equation modeling Models of reading based on research with native English (L1) speakers have long demonstrated the multi-faceted nature of reading comprehension (e.g., RAND, 2002). In particular, these models have highlighted the critical roles of word reading accuracy and fluency in the process of extracting and creating meaning while reading. For monolinguals, much research has demonstrated a persistent influence of accuracy and speed of single word reading in explaining individual differences in reading comprehension outcomes, even for skilled, adult readers (Perfetti, 1985(Perfetti, , 1988Perfetti, Landi & Oakhill, 2005). At the same © 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.Please address all correspondence to: Nonie K. Lesaux, Larsen 319, 14 Appian Way, Harvard Graduate School of Education, Cambridge, MA 02138, lesauxno@gse.harvard.edu. Publisher's Disclaimer: This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final citable form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain. NIH Public AccessAuthor Manuscript J Appl Dev Psychol. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2011 December 1. NIH-PA Author ManuscriptNIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author Manuscript time, vocabulary knowledge has emerged as another important and distinct predictor of reading comprehension across multiple studies with monolinguals (e.g., Anderson & Freebody, 1981;Davis, 1968), particularly for those who have transitioned from "learning to read" in the primary grades to "reading to learn" in the upper elementary grades and beyond (Chall, 1983). The growing population of...

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Connectives (e.g., although, meanwhile) carry abstract meanings and often signal key relationships between text ideas. This study explored whether understanding of connectives represents a unique domain of vocabulary knowledge that provides special leverage for reading comprehension, and whether the contribution of knowledge of connectives to reading comprehension differs for students from distinct language backgrounds. Understanding of connectives, word reading effi ciency and breadth of vocabulary knowledge of 75 English language learners (ELLs) and 75 English-only (EO) fi fth graders were assessed. Hierarchical multiple regression techniques revealed that understanding of connectives explained a sizeable and signifi cant portion of unique variance in comprehension beyond that explained by breadth of vocabulary knowledge when controlling for word reading effi ciency. The magnitude of this relationship was larger for EO students than for ELLs. Findings indicate that connectives play an important role in comprehension, but that the strength of their infl uence varies by readers' linguistic background.

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This study explores factors influencing the degree to which language minority (LM) children from Spanish-dominant homes understand how connectives, such as in contrast and because, signal relationships between text propositions. Standardized tasks of vocabulary, listening comprehension, word reading, and a researcher-designed text cohesion task were administered to 90 fourth-grade LM students. Understanding of connectives was influenced by vocabulary knowledge and listening comprehension. The degree of challenge that specific connectives posed to LM students was predicted by the difficulty that connectives presented as vocabulary items and also by the type of semantic relationship between clauses they signaled. The findings point to factors that may present sources of difficulty underlying reading comprehension, in particular the critical role of oral language competencies.