No abstract

To understand how the COVID-19 pandemic is disproportionately affecting minorities' victims of discrimination, we examined its impact as traumatic stress, coupled with intersected discriminations, on socioeconomic status and well-being. We used previously collected data from 1,374 participants from seven Arab countries. The data included measures of COVID-19 traumatic stress, collective identity trauma (intersected discrimination), socioeconomic status, well-being, existential status and death anxieties, posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, and general anxiety. We analyzed the data using path analysis and multigroup invariance. Results indicated that COVID-19 traumatic stress coupled with collective identity traumas (intersected discrimination) increased existential status and death anxieties and contributed significantly to lower social status and reduced well-being, and increased posttraumatic stress disorder, anxiety, and depression. The conclusion is that COVID-19 creates a vicious cycle, with disparities/inequalities increasing infection and death from COVID-19, and COVID-19 increasing disparities/inequalities further. We found that these relationships' path model is strictly invariant across gender and strongly invariant across the country groups tested. We discussed the conceptual, clinical, and social justice implications and limitations of the study.

COVID-19 is a new type of trauma that has never been conceptually or empirically analyzed in our discipline. This study aimed to investigate the impact of COVID-19 as traumatic stress on mental health after controlling for individuals’ previous stressors and traumas. We utilized a sample of (N = 1374) adults from seven Arab countries. We used an anonymous online questionnaire that included measures for COVID-19 traumatic stress, posttraumatic stress disorder, anxiety, depression, and cumulative stressors and traumas. We conducted hierarchical multiple regression, with posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, and anxiety as dependent variables. In the first step, in each analysis, we entered the country, gender, age, religion, education, and income as independent variables (Kira, Traumatology 7(2):73–86, 2001; Kira, Torture, 14:38–44, 2004; Kira, Traumatology, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1037/trm0000305). In the second step, we entered cumulative stressors and traumas as an independent variable. In the third step, we entered either COVID-19 traumatic stressors or one of its subtypes (fears of infection, economic, and lockdown) as an independent variable. Finally, we conducted structural equation modeling with PTSD, depression, and anxiety as predictors of the latent variable mental health and COVID-19 as the independent variable. Results indicated that COVID-19 traumatic stressors, and each of its three subtypes, were unique predictors of PTSD, anxiety, and depression. Thus, COVID-19 is a new type of traumatic stress that has serious mental health effects. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11469-021-00577-0.

The person’s agentic “Will to Exist/Live and Survive” (WTELS) is overlooked in the literature. We proposed a measure as well as a conceptual predictive model for WTELS. The conceptual model included oppression and cumulative life adversities and WTELS as independent variables, existential annihilation anxieties (EAA), emotion regulation strategies, and self-esteem as mediating variables and psychopathology and posttraumatic growth (PTG) as outcome variables. The sample included 490 participants (age range: 14 to75, M = 26.03, SD = 10.90, 20.4% adolescents, 58.6% females) from three Egyptian cities that represented different regional cultures. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses tested the structural validity of the measure, Path analysis supplemented by PROCESS macro was used to test the predictive validity of the measure and the effect size for each mediator. Multigroup invariance analysis tested the invariance of the measurement and structural models. The developed measure was found to have good reliability, stability, and structural validity. Path analysis validated its predictive validity and indicated that WTELS had strong direct negative effects on EAA and the direct and indirect negative effects on psychopathology. Self-esteem and emotion regulation (reappraisal) were mediators of its indirect effects. WTELS had direct positive effects on PTG and direct and indirect positive effects on emotion regulation. WTELS had direct and indirect positive effects on self-esteem. Its indirect effects on self-esteem were mediated by reappraisal. The results indicated that both the measurement and the structural models of WTELS were strictly invariant across gender, regional, age, and religious groups. We further discussed the importance of developing WTELS-focused intervention and prevention programs.

The goal of the current study is to empirically examine the role of a person’s will to exist, live, and survive (WTELS) in growth upon exposure to cumulative stressors and traumas (CST) and unpack its intricate relationships with posttraumatic growth (PTG) and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). We used a combined five data sets that included participants from Egypt, Turkey, Kuwait, Syria, and the United Kingdom (N = 1,566). We used measures of WTELS, resilience, emotion regulation, identity salience, PTG, interfaith spirituality, PTSD, and poor health. We used path analysis to test a model of the effects of WTELS and CST on PTG and PTSD as mediated by resilience, interfaith spirituality, emotion regulation (reappraisal), and identity salience. Further, we used PROCESS macro to test the direct and indirect effects of WTELS through the mediators. Additionally, we used curve estimation regression to explore the linear and nonlinear relationships among the predictor variables: WTELS, CST, and the outcome variables of PTG and PTSD. WTELS was found to have moderate direct positive effects on PTG, reappraisal, and resilience. It had strong direct and significant indirect negative effects on PTSD. The direct effects of WTELS on PTG were more than twice its indirect effects. Emotion regulation (reappraisal) had the highest effect size as a mediator responsible for its indirect effects on PTG, followed by the resilience and interfaith spirituality. Although WTELS was associated with PTG more linearly, CST and PTG, CST and PTSD, and PTSD and PTG were associated more nonlinearly. We discussed the implications of these results for intervention and prevention.

The unpredictability of suicide is one of the mental health challenges. Based on the threshold model cumulative stressors and traumas interact with a person's characteristics to produce non-linearly suicidality. The current study tests this non-linear relationship using Catastrophe cusp theory. We used cumulative stressors and traumas (CST) as bifurcation control factor and age as asymmetry control factor and suicide as outcome Cusp factor. We utilized three combined previously collected data sets (N = 967) from Western (the UK, N = 177) and non-Western countries (Egypt: N = 490, and Kuwait: N = 300). The combined dataset included 22% adolescents, 40.2% males. Age ranged from 14-75. The measures included cumulative stressors and traumas, interfaith spirituality, religiosity, and identity salience and suicidality. Further, we used measures of interfaith spirituality, religiosity, and identity salience to explore some of the protective factors. We used correlation, curve estimation regression and Cusp catastrophe statistical method to test the hypothesis of the non-linear threshold cusp (sudden shift) model. The explained variance by Cusp catastrophe model non-linear model was highly superior (R 2 = 0.762) to the linear model (R 2 = 0.045) in predicting suicidality. Further, results found that interfaith spirituality, religiosity, and identity salience were powerful protective factors from the sudden emergence of suicidality. We discussed the implications of the results to the conceptualization, prevention, and interventions with suicidal behavior.

Development-based trauma framework (DBTF) identified collective identity stressors and traumas (CISTs) and other trauma types, such as personal identity traumas (PITs), physical identity or survival trauma (PISTs), preidentity such as attachment traumas, and postidentity or secondary trauma (IST). We utilized pooled data from 9 samples from different minorities, refugees, and other victims of CIST (N ϭ 2471) that used measures of cumulative trauma, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), cumulative trauma disorders (CTDs), and existential anxieties (EAAs). PROCESS macro (Models 4, 6, and 7) was used to analyze CIST direct, mediated, and moderated effects, and the serial trajectories of its mediators. We found significant direct effects of CIST on PTSD, CTD, and EAA, in addition to mediated indirect effects Editor's Note. Continue the conversation by submitting your comments and questions about this article/book review to PeacePsychology .org/peaceconflict. (The Editor of PeacePsychology.org reserves the right to exclude material that fails to contribute to constructive discussion.)

COVID-19 pandemic’s mental health impact on Arab countries is under-researched. The goal of this investigation was to study the differential impact of COVID-19 on the mental health of Arab countries. A questionnaire including measures of COVID-19 traumatic stress, PTSD, depression, anxiety, and cumulative stressors and trauma was distributed anonymously online in seven Arab countries (Egypt ( N = 255), Kuwait ( N = 442), Jordan ( N = 216), Saudi Arabia ( N = 212, Algeria ( N = 110), Iraq and Palestine ( N = 139)). We used ANOVA and stepwise regression to analyze the data. For each country, regression, PTSD, depression, and anxiety were dependent variables; we entered in the first-step, gender, age, religion, education, and income. In the second step, we entered “cumulative stressors and traumas.” In the third step, we entered COVID-19 traumatic stress. The ANOVA results indicated that the differences in COVID19 traumatic stress, PTSD, depression, and anxiety between the countries were significant. Post-hoc analysis indicated that Egypt is significantly higher than all the other Arab countries in COVID-19 traumatic stress, PTSD, anxiety, and depression. The subsample from Palestine and Iraq had a significantly higher cumulative trauma load than the other Arab countries but did not have higher levels of COVID-19 traumatic stress or PTSD. Stepwise regression indicated that COVID-19 traumatic stress accounted for significant variance above and beyond the variance accounted for by previous cumulative stressors and traumas for anxiety in all countries and PTSD and depression in all countries except for Algeria. We discussed the implications for these results for the urgent mental health needs of Arab countries. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1007/s12144-020-01148-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.