BackgroundBrucellosis is a neglected tropical zoonosis allegedly reemerging in Middle Eastern countries. Infected ruminants are the primary source of human infection; consequently, estimates of the frequency of ruminant brucellosis are useful elements for building effective control strategies. Unfortunately, these estimates are lacking in most Middle East countries including Egypt. Our objectives are to estimate the frequency of ruminant brucellosis and to describe its spatial distribution in Kafr El Sheikh Governorate, Nile Delta, Egypt.Methodology/Principal FindingsWe conducted a cross-sectional study in which 791 sheep, 383 goats, 188 cattle milk tanks and 173 buffalo milk tanks were randomly selected in 40 villages and tested for the presence of antibodies against Brucella spp. The seroprevalence among different species was estimated and visualized using choropleth maps. A spatial scanning method was used to identify areas with significantly higher proportions of seropositive flocks and milk tanks. We estimated that 12.2% of sheep and 11.3% of goats in the study area were seropositive against Brucella spp. and that 12.2% and 12% of cattle and buffalo milk tanks had antibodies against Brucella spp. The southern part of the governorate had the highest seroprevalence with significant spatial clustering of seropositive flocks in the proximity of its capital and around the main animal markets.Conclusions/ SignificanceOur study revealed that brucellosis is endemic at high levels in all ruminant species in the study area and questions the efficacy of the control measures in place. The high intensity of infection transmission among ruminants combined with high livestock and human density and widespread marketing of unpasteurized milk and dairy products may explain why Egypt has one of the highest rates of human brucellosis worldwide. An effective integrated human-animal brucellosis control strategy is urgently needed. If resources are not sufficient for nationwide implementation, high-risk areas could be prioritized.
ABSTRACT. As little is known about antimicrobial resistance genes in fish farms, this study was conducted to monitor the incidence and prevalence of a wide range of antimicrobial resistance genes in Gram-negative bacteria isolated from water samples taken from fish farms in the northern part of Egypt. Ninety-one out of two hundred seventy-four (33.2%) non-repetitive isolates of Gram-negative bacteria showed multidrug resistance phenotypes and harbored at least one antimicrobial resistance gene. PCR and DNA sequencing results showed that 72 (26.3%) isolates contain tetracycline resistance genes and 19 (6.9%) isolates were positive for class 1 integrons with 12 different gene cassettes. The -lactamase-encoding genes were identified in 14 (5.1%) isolates. The plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance genes, qnr and aac(6')-Ib-cr, were identified in 16 (5.8%) and 3 (1.1%) isolates, respectively. Finally, the florphenicol resistance gene, floR, was identified in four (1.5%) isolates. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report for molecular characterization of antimicrobial resistance in Gram-negative bacteria isolated from fish farms in Africa.
Mycotoxin contamination is considered as one of the most economic problems for livestock and feed industries. A total of thirty fish feedstuffs were collected for isolation and identification of fungi from fish farms in Kafr El Sheikh Governorate, Egypt. Five fungal genera were isolated from all examined feedstuffs. The most frequent isolated fungi was Aspergillus spp. (86.66%) followed by Penicillium spp. (23.33%), and Fusariam spp. (10%), Mucor spp. (6.66%) then Rhizopus spp. (3.33%). Aspergillus niger was the most prevailing genus (43.33%) followed by Aspergillus flavus ((30%), and Aspergillus fumigatus (6.66%), Aspergillus versicolor (3.33%) then Aspergillus terrus (3.33%). Aspergillus ochraceus was not found despite the presence of ochratoxin A (OTA) in low concentrations. Some mycotoxins were produced by more than one fungal species. Mycotoxins determination using HPLC revealed that 23.33% (7/30) of examined fish feed samples were positive, while 23 samples (76.66%) were mycotoxins free. In positive samples of mycotoxins, aflatoxins (AF) and OTA represented 23.33%, 10%, respectively. The estimated carcinogenic aflatoxins were AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 with a percentage of 23.33%, 13.34%, 6.67%, respectively, but AFG2 was not found. About 42.86% of the AFs producing fish feeds was higher than the permissible limit of aflatoxins (permissible limit is 20 ppb). The aflatoxigenic ability of the recovered nine A. flavus referred to 6 out of 9 (66.67%) were aflatoxin producers. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was carried out using the norsolonic acid reductase (nor), versicolorin A (ver-1) and O-methylsterigmatocystin (omtA) as aflatoxin producing genes of the isolated A. flavus strains. From the AF producing A. flavus, 50% was above the permissible limit. Therefore, the high contamination of fish feedstuffs with fungi, AFB1 and low OTA in fish farms indicated potential risks to fish liveliness, derived products and the health of fish consumers.
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