Despite a growing body of epidemiological evidence in recent years documenting the health impacts of racism, the cumulative evidence base has yet to be synthesized in a comprehensive meta-analysis focused specifically on racism as a determinant of health. This meta-analysis reviewed the literature focusing on the relationship between reported racism and mental and physical health outcomes. Data from 293 studies reported in 333 articles published between 1983 and 2013, and conducted predominately in the U.S., were analysed using random effects models and mean weighted effect sizes. Racism was associated with poorer mental health (negative mental health: r = -.23, 95% CI [-.24,-.21], k = 227; positive mental health: r = -.13, 95% CI [-.16,-.10], k = 113), including depression, anxiety, psychological stress and various other outcomes. Racism was also associated with poorer general health (r = -.13 (95% CI [-.18,-.09], k = 30), and poorer physical health (r = -.09, 95% CI [-.12,-.06], k = 50). Moderation effects were found for some outcomes with regard to study and exposure characteristics. Effect sizes of racism on mental health were stronger in cross-sectional compared with longitudinal data and in non-representative samples compared with representative samples. Age, sex, birthplace and education level did not moderate the effects of racism on health. Ethnicity significantly moderated the effect of racism on negative mental health and physical health: the association between racism and negative mental health was significantly stronger for Asian American and Latino(a) American participants compared with African American participants, and the association between racism and physical health was significantly stronger for Latino(a) American participants compared with African American participants. Protocol PROSPERO registration number: CRD42013005464.

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BackgroundRacial discrimination is a pervasive social problem in several advanced countries such as the U.S., U.K., and Australia. Public health research also indicates a range of associations between exposure to racial discrimination and negative health, particularly, mental health including depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, the direct negative health impact of racial discrimination has not been costed so far although economists have previously estimated indirect non-health related productivity costs. In this study, we estimate the burden of disease due to exposure to racial discrimination and measure the cost of this exposure.MethodsUsing prevalence surveys and data on the association of racial discrimination with health outcomes from a global meta-analysis, we apply a cost of illness method to measure the impact of racial discrimination. This estimate indicates the direct health cost attributable to racial discrimination and we convert the estimates to monetary values based on conventional parameters.ResultsRacial discrimination costs the Australian economy 235,452 in disability adjusted life years lost, equivalent to $37.9 billion per annum, roughly 3.02% of annual gross domestic product (GDP) over 2001–11, indicating a sizeable loss for the economy.ConclusionSubstantial cost is incurred due to increased prevalence of racial discrimination as a result of its association with negative health outcomes (e.g. depression, anxiety and PTSD). This implies that potentially significant cost savings can be made through measures that target racial discrimination. Our research contributes to the debate on the social impact of racial discrimination, with implications for policies and efforts addressing it.

This paper investigates the impact of cultural diversity on labour market outcomes, particularly on wages across regions using a large longitudinal data. We apply an instrumental variable approach and account for individual and time fixed effects. Our findings indicate that the current level of cultural diversity positively affected current regional weekly wages; however, the positive effect holds only partially when the diversity is lagged. The results appear to be robust in all estimations controlling for heterogeneity factors and accounting for the self-selection of individuals into places with better economic opportunities. Our findings concerning the effect of lagging on the effect of diversity may explain the variation in the literature where some studies report that cultural diversity increases wages across time while others do not.

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The growing intellectual and policy debate around optimal approaches to diversity governance, particularly in relation to criticism of multiculturalism, is now entering a new phase characterised by advocating alternative conceptual and policy paradigms most notably interculturalism. Proposing a conceptual complementarity approach, rather than dogmatically oppositional stances, this paper approaches interculturalism as offering heuristic additive values to multiculturalism. As the paper shows, the Australian context indeed offers an optimal case study for conceptualising and engaging with interculturalism within an otherwise resilient multicultural framework. Australia’s unique and strong multicultural ethos has combined with successful intercultural strategies at different levels of diversity governance, policy and practice across various sectoral terrains. This paper uses an online national survey to examine the public understanding of and attitudes towards multiculturalism and interculturalism as supposedly distinct yet interconnected policy tools relating to the ever-changing diversity governance agenda.