The goal congruity perspective posits that 2 distinct social cognitions predict attraction to science, technology, engineering, or mathematics (STEM) fields. First, individuals may particularly value communal goals (e.g., working with or helping others), due to either chronic individual differences or the salience of these goals in particular contexts. Second, individuals hold beliefs about the activities that facilitate or impede these goals, or goal affordance stereotypes. Women's tendency to endorse communal goals more highly than do men, along with consensual stereotypes that STEM careers impede communal goals, intersect to produce disinterest in STEM careers. We provide evidence for the foundational predictions that gender differences emerge primarily on communal rather than agentic goals (Studies 1a and 3) and that goal affordance stereotypes reflect beliefs that STEM careers are relatively dissociated from communal goals (Studies 1b and 1c). Most critically, we provide causal evidence that activated communal goals decrease interest in STEM fields (Study 2) and that the potential for a STEM career to afford communal goals elicits greater positivity (Study 3). These studies thus provide a novel demonstration that understanding communal goals and goal affordance stereotypes can lend insight into attitudes toward STEM pursuits.

Although women have nearly attained equality with men in several formerly male-dominated fields, they remain underrepresented in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). We argue that one important reason for this discrepancy is that STEM careers are perceived as less likely than careers in other fields to fulfill communal goals (e.g., working with or helping other people). Such perceptions might disproportionately affect women's career decisions, because women tend to endorse communal goals more than men. As predicted, we found that STEM careers, relative to other careers, were perceived to impede communal goals. Moreover, communal-goal endorsement negatively predicted interest in STEM careers, even when controlling for past experience and self-efficacy in science and mathematics. Understanding how communal goals influence people's interest in STEM fields thus provides a new perspective on the issue of women's representation in STEM careers.

No abstract

No abstract

No abstract

Becoming a better teacher by learning and implementing new ways of teaching requires time, effort, persistence, and a belief that new strategies will enhance student learning. But when educational leaders try to improve teachers and teaching from the outside, by bringing in reformers to transform how teachers engage in the core business of teaching, reforms rarely stick because the first transformation that must occur is in the perspective of initially resistant teachers. This transformation in perspective comes, in part, from teachers working to improve the quality of teachers and teaching in their own schools by developing a common vision, trust in teacher leadership, and openness to learning. Teachers who promote change can make a lasting impact.

In the current research we provide initial documentation of the motivational content of gender stereotypes. Drawing from regulatory focus theory (Higgins, 1987(Higgins, , 1997, we distinguish between whether traits are perceived to be motivated by ideals, including hopes, dreams, and aspirations, and oughts, including responsibilities, duties, and obligations. In two studies of U.S. Midwestern undergraduates, participants rated the extent to which the traits of men or women are motivated by ideals or oughts. Study 1 included 137 introductory psychology students who rated gender stereotypic traits (e.g., competitiveness for men; sensitivity for women); Study 2 included 118 introductory psychology students who rated gender stereotypic or counterstereotypic traits (e.g., competitiveness for women; sensitivity for men). In both Studies 1 and 2, we demonstrate that people perceive women as especially motivated by ideals rather than oughts but men as equivalently motivated by ideals and oughts. These patterns emerge regardless of trait stereotypicality. In Study 3, we examined the relationship between perceptions of role flexibility and the perception of ideal motivation using a sample of 214 introductory psychology students from the Midwestern U.S. We found evidence that ascriptions of ideal motivation are associated with perceptions of role flexibility, which are greater for women. We discuss the implications of these beliefs for the legitimization of the existing gendered social system.

No abstract