In order to compare and contrast conventional preparation (CP) with ThinPrep 2000 (TP) in respiratory cytology, 207 samples were divided equally and processed by the two different preparation methods, generating three CP and one TP slide per sample. No lesion identified by CP was missed by TP and there were no significant differences between TP and CP in the diagnostic categories. However, two cases of squamous cell carcinoma were detected on TP which had been classified as unsatisfactory and moderate squamous dyskaryosis, respectively, on CP. ThinPrep was found to be superior to CP in many respects as it provided standardized preparations in a greater proportion of cases and problems such as cell overlapping and background debris were markedly reduced. In several instances the diagnostic accuracy in CP was compromised by smears that were either too thick, too thin, or too scanty. Cell preservation was also better on TP when compared with CP, facilitating more accurate diagnosis and significantly reducing the primary screening and reporting time, especially of sputum samples. A major advantage of TP methodology is the fact that it facilitates optimal use of skilled cytotechnologists and streamlines the workflow in the laboratory.

The main aetiology of cervical cancer is infection with high risk human papillomavirus (HPV). Cervical cancer is almost 100% curable if detected in the early stages. Thus, information about the 10 presence and levels of HPV in patient samples has high clinical value. As current screening methods, such as the Pap smear test, are highly subjective and in many cases show low sensitivity and specificity, new supportive techniques are desirable to improve the quality of cervical cancer screening. In this study, vibrational spectroscopic techniques (Raman and Fourier Transform Infra Red absorption) have been applied to the investigation of four cervical cancer cell lines, HPV 15 negative C33A, HPV-18 positive HeLa with 20-50 integrated HPV copies per cell, HPV-16 positive SiHa with 1-2 integrated HPV strands per cell and HPV-16 positive CaSki containing 60-600 integrated HPV copies per cell. Results show that vibrational spectroscopic techniques can discriminate between the cell lines and elucidate cellular differences originating from proteins, nucleic acids and lipids. Similarities between C33A and SiHa cells were exhibited in the Raman 20 and infrared spectra and were confirmed by Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Analysis of the biochemical composition of the investigated cells, with the aid of PCA showed a clear discrimination between the C33A-SiHa group and HeLa and CaSki cell lines indicating the potential of vibrational spectroscopic techniques as support to current methods for cervical cancer screening. 25 IntroductionCervical cancer is second only to breast cancer as the most common malignancy in women worldwide 1 . The gradual progression of cervical cancer allows the application of screening and diagnostic programmes to detect neoplastic 30 changes before invasive cancer develops. The Papanicolaou test (also called the Pap test, Pap smear, or smear test) is a screening method which allows detection of infections and abnormalities of the cervix. The Pap smear test is the most widespread screening method for cervical neoplasia 2 and is 35 based on visual evaluation of the morphology of cells collected from the cervix under light microscopy. Microscopic examination brings subjectivity to the screening results, therefore, the smear test has a hugely variable sensitivity (17% -99%) and specificity (9% -100%) 3 . 40 The probability of developing cervical dysplasia is much higher for women infected with human papillomavirus (HPV) than those free of infection 4 . Infection with oncogenic or high-risk HPV is the main risk factor for cervical cancer 5 with 99.7% of invasive cervical neoplasia 45 associated with HPV infection 6 . Thus, HPV testing has been added to the range of clinical options for cervical cancer screening. Detection of HPV (HPV testing) is based on detecting the DNA of the virus. It has been found that the DNA of high risk strains of HPV are assimilated within the 50 cellular DNA of the host 7 . A drawback to HPV testing is that it is more expensive and time-consuming than other screening tes...

Raman spectroscopy provides a unique biochemical fingerprint capable of identifying and characterizing the structure of molecules, cells, and tissues. In cervical cancer, it is acknowledged as a promising biochemical tool due to its ability to detect premalignancy and early malignancy stages. This review summarizes the key research in the area and the evidence compiled is very encouraging for ongoing and further research. In addition to the diagnostic potential, promising results for HPV detection and monitoring treatment response suggest more than just a diagnosis prospective. A greater body of evidence is however necessary before Raman spectroscopy is fully validated for clinical use and larger comprehensive studies are required to fully establish the role of Raman spectroscopy in the molecular diagnostics of cervical cancer.

Cervical cancer is the fourth most common cancer affecting women worldwide but mortality can be decreased by early detection of pre-malignant lesions. The Pap smear test is the most commonly used method in cervical cancer screening programmes. Although specificity is high for this test, it is widely acknowledged that sensitivity can be poor mainly due to the subjective nature of the test. There is a need for new objective tests for the early detection of pre-malignant cervical lesions. Over the past two decades, Raman spectroscopy has emerged as a promising new technology for cancer screening and diagnosis. The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential of Raman spectroscopy for cervical cancer screening using both Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia (CIN) and Squamous Intraepithelial Lesion (SIL) classification terminology. ThinPrep® Pap samples were recruited from a cervical screening population. Raman spectra were recorded from single cell nuclei and subjected to multivariate statistical analysis. Normal and abnormal ThinPrep® samples were discriminated based on the biochemical fingerprint of the cells using Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Principal Component Analysis - Linear Discriminant Analysis (PCA-LDA) was employed to build classification models based on either CIN or SIL terminology. This study has shown that Raman spectroscopy can be successfully applied to the study of routine cervical cytology samples from a cervical screening programme and that the use of CIN terminology resulted in improved sensitivity for high grade cases.

Translation of Raman micro-spectroscopy into the clinic for bladder cancer diagnosticsviaurine cytology.