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Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection is generally acquired during early childhood; therefore, the immune response which usually takes place at this age may influence or even determine susceptibility to the infection contributing to the clinical outcomes in adulthood. Several cytokines including IL-6, IL-10, and TGF-β1 as well as Foxp3+ cell numbers have been shown to be higher; however, some other cytokines consisting of IL-1β, IL-17A, and IL-23 are lower in infected children than in infected adults. Immune response to H. pylori infection in children is predominant Treg instead of Th17 cell response. These results indicate that immune system responses probably play a role in persistent H. pylori infection. Childhood H. pylori infection is also associated with significantly lower levels of inflammation and ulceration compared with adults. This review, therefore, aimed to provide critical findings of the available literature about comparative immune system in children and adults with H. pylori infection.

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The immunosuppressive factors in tumor microenvironment enhance tumor growth and suppress anti-tumor immune responses. Adenosine is an important immunosuppressive factor which can be secreted by both tumor and immune cells trough action of two cell surface ecto-nucleotidase molecules CD39 and CD73. Blocking the adenosine generating molecules has emerged as an effective immunotherapeutic approach for treatment of cancer. In this study, CD73-siRNA encapsulated into chitosan-lactate (ChLa) nanoparticles (NPs) was employed to suppress the expression of CD73 molecule on 4T1 breast tumor cells, in vitro. ChLa NPs were generated through ionic gelation of ChLa by tripolyphosphate (TPP). Small interfering RNA (SiRNA)-loaded NPs had about 100 nm size with a polydispersive index below 0.3 and a zeta potential about 13. Our results showed that ChLa NPs with Ch 50 kDa exhibit the best physicochemical features with the high siRNA encapsulation capacity. Synthesized NPs were able to fully bind with siRNA, protect them against serum and heparin degradation, and promote the transfection process. While the NPs exhibited low toxicity during 72 h cell culture, the transfection of Ch-plasmid expressing green fluorescent protein (pEGFP) NPs was efficient in 4T1 cells with a transfection rate of 53.6 % as detected by flow cytometry. In addition, CD73-siRNA-loaded ChLa NPs could efficiently suppress the expression of CD73 as assayed by real-time polymerase chain reaction and flow cytometry. As a conclusion, CD73-siRNA-loaded ChLa NPs may be considered as a promising therapeutic tool for cancer therapy; however, further in vivo investigations are necessary.

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