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Recent trends in conceptualizing sex role behavior have emphasized the independent development of masculinity and femininity. This has required a logical extension of sex role outcomes from the bipolar alternatives of being masculine or feminine to a quadripolar typology in which sex roles could develop as masculine and feminine, masculine and not feminine, feminine and not masculine, or neither masculine nor feminine. Investigation of this extended typology requires a masculinity-femininity scaling technique that provides independent measures of the two dimensions. The present study presents evidence regarding the psychometric properties of the Masculinity and Femininity scales of the Adjective Check List, developed from the parent Masculinity-Femininity Scale especially for the purpose of independent measurement.

The relations between psychopathy, violence, and impulsiveness of criminal behavior were examined within a white prisoner sample using level of intelligence as a moderator variable. Unlike most prior research, psychopathy was found to be predictive of violence, but only for less intelligent criminals; about 90% of this group had committed a violent crime compared to 58% for the remainder of the sample. Similarity, the psychopaths with limited intelligence evidenced the greatest impulsivity in the commission of their crimes relative to bright psychopaths or nonpsychopathic criminals at either level of intelligence. The implications of the findings for the importance of moderating cognitive variables in personality predictions are discussed.

An earlier study identified a high risk for violent crime in psychopathic prisoners when intelligence was considered as a moderator. The present investigation of 168 male prisoners sought to identify more specific models of violence relating to psychopathic status by considering additional cognitive factors that might relate to intelligence and to the expression of physical aggression. Three cognitive psychopathic models were suggested by the data. An impaired-processing psychopathic model of violent crime, involving low-IQ psychopaths, would explain the highest risk factor for violence by a combination of poor impulse control and low empathy and the lack of inhibitions against physical aggression associated with poor socialization. A sadistic, effective-processing, psychopathic model of violence was suggested by the higher empathy and better impulse control of the high-IQ psychopath. It was proposed that empathy promotes sadistic reinforcement by enhancing the psychopath's awareness of the victim's pain and distress. A defensive, impaired-processing, nonpsychopathic model of violence was proposed for the low-IQ nonpsychopaths: Effective self-reinforcement coupled with poor impulse control and low empathy place them in hazardous situations that exceed their cognitive skills.

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This study tested the hypothesis that psychiatric patients with a history of auditory hallucinations would show impaired recognition of their own thoughts relative to nonhallucinating patients. The reasoning underlying this proposal was that given the need to discriminate between one's own lexical thought and a voice from another source, the person less familiar with the properties of his or her thinking would more likely mislabel the source. Twelve hallucinators and eight nonhallucinators were asked to identify lexical, semantic, and syntactic properties of their own thoughts expressed a week earlier, and, as hypothesized, hallucinators were less capable of doing so. Control measures of verbal memory, opinion stability, and communication skill showed no differences between these groups. Analysis of process and reactive premorbid status revealed possible links of impaired thought recognition to excessive internal and external deployment of attention.Hallucinations, at least those not associated with any obvious disruption of central nervous system functioning, are among the more mystifying examples of serious psychological disturbance. There is general consensus that auditory and visual hallucinations are misrepresentations of the person's own thoughts in lexical (word) or image form so that they are treated as having external reference (i.e., as a perception; Horowitz, 1975). However, as is often true when solid empirical evidence is lacking, a large number of reasons have been proposed to explain why a gross misattribution occurs.Psychodynamic theorists have offered a range of speculations about the basis for hallucinations that frequently emphasize the adaptive qualities of the experience (Bender, 1970;Sherman & Beverly, 1924). Psychoanalytic thinkers have proposed hallucinations to be direct or symbolic repetitions of psychic trauma (Breuer & Freud, 1895) or regressions to a lower level of thought (from The author would like to express his appreciation to P. M. Temples and his staff at the Georgia Mental Health Institute for their generous cooperation with this investigation.Requests for reprints should be sent to

The extent to which the client's naive expectations of therapist role behavior are met remains a possible source of initial satisfaction with psychotherapy and a basis for early defection or continuation. The effects of providing relevant information to the client about therapist directive-nondirective behavior prior to initial contact were investigated. The major results showed college female clients who were high in counseling readiness to be most satisfied with initial contacts, given preliminary briefing, relative to their nonbriefed counterparts. The briefed high-counseling-ready female also was able to elicit more directive interviewer behavior. Briefing, while it failed to influence the initial subjective satisfaction of low-counseling-ready clients (male and female), did significantly reduce the incidence of early termination in this group.

Three studies concerning the adaptive value of psychological androgyny in college males and females are reported. Study 1 followed up evidence in the sex role literature indicating greater adaptive value of androgyny for females. Self-esteem and competence level analyses suggested that androgyny in women is more advantageous relative to other sex types than is true for men. Study 2 hypothesized that superior social cognition (i.e., high intraception and social insight) mediates the adaptive value of androgyny, allowing effective deployment of expanded sex role potential across situations. The opposite was found: Androgynous males demonstrated the highest social cognition among the four sex-types and androgynous females were not exceptional in this regard. Study 3 compared personal defensiveness among the four sex-types. Androgynous males were the least well-defended and androgynous females the most highly defended relative to the other sex-types. This was proposed as one basis for enhanced competence of androgynous females and the unexceptional competence of their male counterparts despite social cognition differences.