Identifying the neuronal cell types that comprise the mammalian forebrain is a central unsolved problem in neuroscience. Global gene expression profiles offer a potentially unbiased way to assess functional relationships between neurons. Here, we carried out microarray analysis of 12 populations of neurons in the adult mouse forebrain. Five of these populations were chosen from cingulate cortex and included several subtypes of GABAergic interneurons and pyramidal neurons. The remaining seven were derived from the somatosensory cortex, hippocampus, amygdala and thalamus. Using these expression profiles, we were able to construct a taxonomic tree that reflected the expected major relationships between these populations, such as the distinction between cortical interneurons and projection neurons. The taxonomic tree indicated highly heterogeneous gene expression even within a single region. This dataset should be useful for the classification of unknown neuronal subtypes, the investigation of specifically expressed genes and the genetic manipulation of specific neuronal circuit elements.

Pyramidal neurons in the deep layers of the cerebral cortex can be classified into two major classes: callosal projection neurons and long-range subcortical neurons. We and others have shown that a gene expressed specifically by subcortical projection neurons, Fezf2, is required for the formation of axonal projections to the spinal cord, tectum, and pons. Here, we report that Fezf2 regulates a decision between subcortical vs. callosal projection neuron fates. callosal ͉ cell fate ͉ zinc finger transcription factor ͉ corticospinal tract ͉ axon guidance

Hattox AM, Nelson SB. Layer V neurons in mouse cortex projecting to different targets have distinct physiological properties. J Neurophysiol 98: 3330 -3340, 2007. First published September 26, 2007 doi:10.1152/jn.00397.2007. Layer V pyramidal neurons are anatomically and physiologically heterogeneous and project to multiple intracortical and subcortical targets. However, because most physiological studies of layer V pyramidal neurons have been carried out on unidentified cells, we know little about how anatomical and physiological properties relate to subcortical projection site. Here we combine neuroanatomical tract tracing with whole cell recordings in mouse somatosensory cortex to test whether neurons with the same projection target form discrete subpopulations and whether they have stereotyped physiological properties. Our findings indicate that corticothalamic and -trigeminal neurons are two largely nonoverlapping subpopulations, whereas callosal and corticostriatal neurons overlap extensively. The morphology as well as the intrinsic membrane and firing properties of corticothalamic and corticotrigeminal neurons differ from those of callosal and corticostriatal neurons. In addition, we find that each class of projection neuron exhibits a unique compliment of hyperpolarizing and depolarizing afterpotentials that further suggests that cortical neurons with different subcortical targets are distinct from one another.

Neuroanatomical tract-tracing methods were used to identify the oligosynaptic circuitry by which the whisker representation of the motor cortex (wMCx) influences the facial motoneurons that control whisking activity (wFMNs). Injections of the retrograde tracer cholera toxin subunit B into physiologically identified wFMNs in the lateral facial nucleus resulted in dense, bilateral labeling throughout the brainstem reticular formation and in the ambiguus nucleus as well as predominantly ipsilateral labeling in the paralemniscal, pedunculopontine tegmental, Kölliker-Fuse, and parabrachial nuclei. In addition, neurons in the following midbrain regions projected to the wFMNs: superior colliculus, red nucleus, periaqueductal gray, mesencephalon, pons, and several nuclei involved in oculomotor behaviors. Injections of the anterograde tracer biotinylated dextran amine into the wMCx revealed direct projections to the brainstem reticular formation as well as multiple brainstem and midbrain structures shown to project to the wFMNs. Regions in which retrograde labeling and anterograde labeling overlap most extensively include the brainstem parvocellular, gigantocellular, intermediate, and medullary (dorsal and ventral) reticular formations; ambiguus nucleus; and midbrain superior colliculus and deep mesencephalic nucleus. Other regions that contain less dense regions of combined anterograde and retrograde labeling include the following nuclei: the interstitial nucleus of medial longitudinal fasciculus, the pontine reticular formation, and the lateral periaqueductal gray. Premotoneurons that receive dense inputs from the wMCx are likely to be important mediators of cortical regulation of whisker movements and may be a key component in a central pattern generator involved in the generation of rhythmic whisking activity. Keywordscentral pattern generator; motor cortex; facial nucleus; brainstem; rat Production of rhythmic whisker movements ("whisking") is a critical exploratory behavior in several mammalian species (see, e.g., Vincent, 1912;Brecht et al., 1997) and is emerging as a model system for studying mechanisms of voluntary movements (Kleinfeld et al., 1997). Whisking consists of large-amplitude protractions of the large mystacial vibrissae, with spectral components between 6 and 9 Hz (Semba and Komisaruk, 1984). The whisker representation of the motor cortex (wMCx) occupies approximately one-third of the rodent motor cortex, and low-intensity stimulation of this region evokes whisker protractions (Donoghue and Wise, 1982;Weiss and Keller, 1994). The patterns of afferent, efferent, and intracortical connections of the wMCx suggest that the area is devoted primarily to regulating whisker movements (Donoghue and Parham, 1983;Miyashita et al., 1994;Weiss and Keller, 1994). However, the mechanisms by which the wMCx regulates whisking are at present unknown. Support for a role of the wMCx in regulating whisking is derived from studies demonstrating correlations between wMCx unit activity and EMG recorded from the whis...

Many rodents explore their environment by rhythmically palpating objects with their mystacial whiskers. These rhythmic whisker movements ("whisking"; 5-9 Hz) are thought to be regulated by an unknown brainstem central pattern generator (CPG). We tested the hypothesis that serotonin (5-HT) inputs to whisking facial motoneurons (wFMNs) are part of this CPG. In response to exogenous serotonin, wFMNs recorded in vitro fire rhythmically at whisking frequencies, and selective 5-HT2 or 5-HT3 receptor antagonists suppress this rhythmic firing. In vivo, stimulation of brainstem serotonergic raphe nuclei evokes whisker movements. Unilateral infusion of selective 5-HT2 or 5-HT3 receptor antagonists suppresses ipsilateral whisking and substantially alters the frequencies and symmetry of whisker movements. These findings suggest that serotonin is both necessary and sufficient to generate rhythmic whisker movements and that serotonergic premotoneurons are part of a whisking CPG.

Previous studies, based on qualitative observations, reported that lesions of the whisker motor cortex produce no deficits in whisking behavior. We used high-resolution optoelectronic recording methods to compare the temporal organization and kinematics of whisker movements before and after unilateral lesions of whisker motor cortex in rats. We now report that while the lesion did not abolish whisking, it significantly disrupted whisking kinematics, coordination, and temporal organization. Lesioned animals showed significant increases in the velocity and amplitude of whisker protractions contralateral to the lesions, as well as a reduction in the synchrony of whisker movements on the two sides of the face. There was a marked shift in the distribution of whisking frequencies, with reduction of activity in the 5-7 Hz bandwidth and increased activity at < 2 Hz. Disruptions of the normal whisking pattern were evident on both sides of the face, and the magnitude of these effects was proportional to the extent of the cortical ablation. We suggest that the observed deficits reflect an imbalance in cortical inputs to a brainstem central pattern generator.