Prebiotics are food ingredients that improve health by modulating the colonic microbiota. The bifidogenic effect of the prebiotic inulin is well established; however, it remains unclear which species of Bifidobacterium are stimulated in vivo and whether bacterial groups other than lactic acid bacteria are affected by inulin consumption. Changes in the faecal microbiota composition were examined by real-time PCR in twelve human volunteers after ingestion of inulin (10 g/d) for a 16-d period in comparison with a control period without any supplement intake. The prevalence of most bacterial groups examined did not change after inulin intake, although the low G þ C % Gram-positive species Faecalibacterium prausnitzii exhibited a significant increase (10·3 % for control period v. 14·5 % during inulin intake, P¼ 0·019). The composition of the genus Bifidobacterium was studied in four of the volunteers by clone library analysis. Between three and five Bifidobacterium spp. were found in each volunteer. Bifidobacterium adolescentis and Bifidobacterium longum were present in all volunteers, and Bifidobacterium pseudocatenulatum, Bifidobacterium animalis, Bifidobacterium bifidum and Bifidobacterium dentium were also detected. Real-time PCR was employed to quantify the four most prevalent Bifidobacterium spp., B. adolescentis, B. longum, B. pseudocatenulatum and B. bifidum, in ten volunteers carrying detectable levels of bifidobacteria. B. adolescentis showed the strongest response to inulin consumption, increasing from 0·89 to 3·9 % of the total microbiota (P¼ 0·001). B. bifidum was increased from 0·22 to 0·63 % (P,0·001) for the five volunteers for whom this species was present. Prebiotic: Inulin: Microbiota: BifidobacteriumThe microbial community resident in the human colon is a highly complex consortium of many different bacterial species. The application of molecular tools targeting the 16S rRNA gene has revealed that the numerically dominant groups are low G þ C % Gram-positive bacteria and Gram-negative Bacteroidetes; however, many phylotypes remain uncultured and consequently poorly characterised (1) . The microbiota plays an important role in host health through various mechanisms, such as protection against pathogenic bacteria and provision of nutrients, and its composition can be modulated by dietary means, which can lead to either more healthpromoting or more detrimental consequences for the host (1) . One way of modulating the gut microbiota is through the consumption of prebiotics, non-digestible food ingredients that pass through the upper gut and are selectively fermented by colonic bacteria. This leads to specific changes in the composition and/or activity of the gut microbiota that confers benefits upon host well-being and health (2,3) . The dietary fructan inulin and its breakdown product fructo-oligosaccharide are particularly well-studied prebiotics, and evidence supporting their health-promoting effects, mostly in animal models, is accumulating rapidly (3,4) . A direct consequence of inulin ingestion i...

Conservation Agriculture (CA) is being advocated to enhance soil health and sustain long term crop productivity in the developing world. One of CA's key principles is the maintenance of soil cover often by retaining a proportion of crop residues on the field as mulch. Yet smallholder crop-livestock systems across Africa and Asia face trade-offs among various options for crop residue use. Knowledge of the potential trade-offs of leaving more residues as mulch is only partial and the objective of this research is to address some of these knowledge gaps by assessing the trade-offs in contrasting settings with mixed crop-livestock systems. The paper draws from village surveys in 12 sites in 9 different countries across Sub-Sahara Africa and South Asia. Sites were clustered into 3 groups along the combined population and livestock density gradients to assess current crop residue management practices and explore potential challenges to adopting mulching practices in different circumstances. Results show that although highdensity sites face higher potential pressure on resources on an area basis, biomass production tends to be more substantial in these sites covering demands for livestock feed and allowing part of the residues to be used as mulch. In medium-density sites, although population and livestock densities are relatively lower, biomass is scarce and pressure on land and feed are high, increasing the pressure on crop residues and their opportunity cost as mulch. In low-density areas, population and livestock densities are relatively low and communal feed and fuel resources exist, resulting in lower potential pressure on residues on an area basis. Yet, biomass production is low and farmers largely rely on crop residues to feed livestock during the long dry season, implying substantial opportunity costs to their use as mulch. Despite its potential benefit for smallholder farmers across the density gradient, the introduction of CA-based mulching practices appears potentially easier in sites where biomass production is high enough to fulfil existing demands for feed and fuel. In sites with relatively high feed and fuel pressure, the eventual introduction of CA needs complementary research and development efforts to increase biomass production and/or develop alternative sources to alleviate the opportunity costs of leaving some crop residues as mulch.

Cabbage contains the glucosinolate sinigrin, which is hydrolyzed by myrosinase to allyl isothiocyanate. Isothiocyanates are thought to inhibit the development of cancer cells by a number of mechanisms. The effect of cooking cabbage on isothiocyanate production from glucosinolates during and after their ingestion was examined in human subjects. Each of 12 healthy human volunteers consumed three meals, at 48-h intervals, containing either raw cabbage, cooked cabbage, or mustard according to a cross-over design. At each meal, watercress juice, which is rich in phenethyl isothiocyanate, was also consumed to allow individual and temporal variation in postabsorptive isothiocyanate recovery to be measured. Volunteers recorded the time and volume of each urination for 24 h after each meal. Samples of each urination were analyzed for N-acetyl cysteine conjugates of isothiocyanates as a measure of entry of isothiocyanates into the peripheral circulation. Excretion of isothiocyanates was rapid and substantial after ingestion of mustard, a source of preformed allyl isothiocyanate. After raw cabbage consumption, allyl isothiocyanate was again rapidly excreted, although to a lesser extent than when mustard was consumed. On the cooked cabbage treatment, excretion of allyl isothiocyanate was considerably less than for raw cabbage, and the excretion was delayed. The results indicate that isothiocyanate production is more extensive after consumption of raw vegetables but that isothiocyanates still arise, albeit to a lesser degree, when cooked vegetables are consumed. The lag in excretion on the cooked cabbage treatment suggests that the colon microflora catalyze glucosinolate hydrolysis in this case.

In cabbage, glucosinolates such as sinigrin are hydrolyzed by plant myrosinase to allyl isothiocyanate (AITC), allyl cyanide, and, in the presence of an epithiospecifier protein, 1-cyano-2,3-epithiopropane (CEP). Isothiocyanates have been implicated in the cancer-protective effects of Brassica vegetables. The effect of processing on the hydrolysis of glucosinolates was investigated in cabbage. Cabbage was steamed or microwaved for six time durations over 7 min. Glucosinolate concentrations were slightly reduced after microwave cooking (P < 0.001) but were not influenced after steaming (P < 0.05). Myrosinase activity was effectively lost after 2 min of microwave cooking and after 7 min of steaming. Hydrolysis of residual glucosinolates following cooking yielded predominantly CEP at short cooking durations and AITC at longer durations until myrosinase activity was lost. Lightly cooked cabbage produced the highest yield of AITC on hydrolysis in vitro, suggesting that cooking Brassica vegetables for a relatively short duration may be desirable from a health perspective.

Innovation systems thinking is increasingly influencing approaches to sustainable agricultural development in developing world contexts. This represents a shift away from technology transfer towards recognition that agricultural change entails complex interactions among multiple actors and a range of technical, social and institutional factors. One option for practically applying innovation systems thinking involves the establishment of innovation platforms (IPs). Such platforms are designed to bring together a variety of different stakeholders to exchange knowledge and resources and take action to solve common problems. Yet relatively little is known about how IPs operate in practice, particularly how power dynamics influence platform processes. This paper focuses on a research-fordevelopment project in the Ethiopian highlands which established three IPs for improved natural resource management. The 'power cube' is used to retrospectively analyse the spaces, forms and levels of power within these platforms and the impact on platform processes and resulting interventions. The overall aim is to highlight the importance of power issues in order to better assess the strengths and limitations of IPs as a model for inclusive innovation. Findings suggest that while IPs may achieve some short-term success in creating spaces for wider participation in decision-making processes, they may be significantly influenced by forms of power which may not always be visible or easily challenged.

The protective effects of brassica vegetables against cancer may be partly related to their glucosinolate content. Glucosinolates are hydrolysed by plant myrosinase following damage of plant tissue. Isothiocyanates are one of the main groups of metabolites of glucosinolates and are implicated in the preventive effect against cancer. During cooking of brassica the glucosinolate–myrosinase system may be modified as a result of inactivation of plant myrosinase, loss of enzymic cofactors such as epithiospecifier protein, thermal breakdown and/or leaching of glucosinolates and their metabolites or volatilisation of metabolites. Cooking brassica affects the site of release of breakdown products of glucosinolates, which is the upper gastrointestinal tract following consumption of raw brassica containing active plant myrosinase. After consumption of cooked brassica devoid of plant myrosinase glucosinolates are hydrolysed in the colon under the action of the resident microflora. Feeding trials with human subjects have shown that hydrolysis of glucosinolates and absorption of isothiocyanates are greater following ingestion of raw brassica with active plant myrosinase than after consumption of the cooked plant with denatured myrosinase. The digestive fate of glucosinolates may be further influenced by the extent of cell rupture during ingestion, gastrointestinal transit time, meal composition, individual genotype and differences in colonic microflora. These sources of variation may partly explain the weak epidemiological evidence relating consumption of brassica to prevention against cancer. An understanding of the biochemical changes occurring during cooking and ingestion of brassica may help in the design of more robust epidemiological studies to better evaluate the protective effects of brassica against cancer.

The whale shark is an ideal flagship species for 'citizen science' projects because of its charismatic nature, regular presence at numerous coastal aggregation sites and a growing number of ecotourism ventures focusing on the species. An online database of Whale Shark encounters, identifying individuals based on their unique skin patterning from 1992 to 2014 captured almost 30,000 whale shark encounter reports, comprising more than 6000 individuals identified from 54 countries. In this time the number of known whale shark aggregation sites increased from 13 to 20. Examination of encounters revealed a skewed sexratio bias towards males (overall >66%), high site fidelity amongst individuals with limited movements of sharks between neighbouring countries/regions but no records confirming 2 large, ocean basin-scale migrations. Citizen science has been vital in amassing large spatial and temporal datasets to elucidate key aspects of whale shark life-history and demographics and will continue to provide substantial long-term value.

Smallholder dairy production represents a promising income generating activity for poor farmers in the developing world. Because of the perishable nature of milk, marketing arrangements for collection, distribution and sale are important for enhanced livelihoods in the smallholder dairy sector. In this study we examined the relationship between market quality and basic feeding and breeding practices at farm level. We define market quality as the attractiveness and reliability of procurement channels and associated input supply arrangements. We took as our study countries, India with its well-developed smallholder dairy sector, and Ethiopia where the smallholder dairy industry has remained relatively undeveloped despite decades of development effort. We conducted village surveys among producer groups in 90 villages across three States in India and two Regions in Ethiopia. Producer groups were stratified according to three levels of market quality – high, medium and low. Data showed that diet composition was relatively similar in India and Ethiopia with crop residues forming the major share of the diet. Concentrate feeding tended to be more prominent in high market quality sites. Herd composition changed with market quality with more dairy (exotic) cross-bred animals in high market quality sites in both India and Ethiopia. Cross-bred animals were generally more prominent in India than Ethiopia. Herd performance within breed did not change a great deal along the market quality gradient. Parameters such as calving interval and milk yield were relatively insensitive to market quality. Insemination of cross-bred cows was predominantly by artificial insemination (AI) in India and accounted for around half of cross-bred cow inseminations in Ethiopia. Data on perceptions of change over the last decade indicated that per herd and per cow productivity are both increasing in high market quality sites with a more mixed picture in medium and low-quality sites. Similarly dairy-derived income is on the increase in high market quality sites. This is accompanied by a strong increase in stall feeding at the expense of grazing. The study indicates that the first constraint to intensification of dairy production in Ethiopia is the genetic quality of the herd. There is less scope for improved AI provision in India since the cross-bred herd is mainly serviced by AI already. However, as for Ethiopia, there is considerable scope for closing yield gaps in India through improved feed use and supply. Results strongly show that well-developed markets with good procurement arrangements are key for sustainable dairy intensification.