We developed a new procedure for concentration of enteric viruses from water using a negatively charged membrane. Rinsing the membrane with 0.5 mM H 2 SO 4 (pH 3.0) in order to elute cations prior to viral elution with 1 mM NaOH (pH 10.5) promoted poliovirus recovery yields from 33 to 95% when applied to pure water and 38 to 89% when applied to natural seawater from Tokyo Bay, Japan, respectively. This method showed average recovery yields of spiked poliovirus of 62% (n ؍ 8) from 1 liter of artificial seawater. This method showed higher recovery yields (>61%) than that of the conventional method using positively charged membrane (6%) when applied to seawater. This method is also free from beef extract elution, which has an inhibitory effect in the subsequent viral genome detection by reverse transcription-PCR. Naturally occurring Norwalk viruses from 2 liters of Tokyo Bay water in winter and infectious enteroviruses from 2 liters of recreational coastal seawater in summer were detected by using this viral concentration method.To determine the public health risk caused by human enteric viruses in water, a reliable, sensitive, and practical method for detecting small concentrations of viruses is needed. Concentrating viruses in water by adsorption to and subsequent elution from a positively charged membrane (38) is currently considered to be one of the most useful methods (3). This method has been applied to tap water (25, 39), groundwater (1), river water (22, 23), lake water (23), secondarily treated sewage (36) or marine water (29). The virus concentrations are determined by conventional plaque assays (22,23,25,36,38,39). However, the recoveries from seawater are not always high enough because of low adsorption of viruses to the positively charged membrane due to the influence of salts (24). Most of the enteric viruses are known to adsorb to a negatively charged membrane in the presence of Mg 2ϩ (40,43) or other multivalent cations, or under acid conditions (37), while the recovery of viruses is not always easy.According to the infectious disease weekly reports from the National Institute of Infectious Disease, Tokyo, Japan, infection with enteroviruses is common in the summer. The use of recreational seawater is suspected as one of the main pathways of infection. On the other hand, the outbreaks of Norwalk viruses have been occurring often in winter, and the consumption of molluscan shellfish fecally contaminated in the harvesting seawater has been suspected to be one of the main pathways of these viruses. Hence, the viral contamination of seawater is one of the important issues from the epidemiological point of view. The occurrence of these viruses in oysters or other seafood has been widely reported (4,8,10,18), while the fate of viruses in seawater is unknown and the levels of the virus have not been quantitatively discussed (9).In recent years, the PCR method has been used to detect enteric viruses in environmental samples (16, 19-21, 28, 31, 42). PCR is one of the most-sensitive methods available for ...
• From this study on the Chubek Irrigation System in Tajikistan, a new relative irrigation performance index-water use ratio (WUR)-proved effective and reliable given favorable remote sensing conditions and climatic and cropland data. • The WUR is particularly suitable for river basins and large irrigation systems in developing countries where data on irrigation canal flow are not available or limited. • A quantitative performance index-irrigation consumptive use coefficient (ICUC)-was also applied. But this requires reliable canal flow data, which were unavailable in the case presented. • It is highly recommended that both WUR and ICUC are used for monitoring and evaluating irrigation performance at project completion and for future water management. • For reliable canal flow data, flow recording devices are needed. Strong institutional arrangements, trained staff, and resources for essential equipment are also required. • Results of the study provide a valuable guide for assessing irrigation system performance using remote sensing data as well as modernizing existing systems and designing new ones.
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