We present the first regional-scale records of biogenic Barium (xsBa) fluxes in the Panama basin of the eastern-equatorial margin of the Pacific Ocean in order to assess xsBa as a paleoproductivity proxy. Measurements of xsBa from 13 cores that range in water depths from about 700 to 3,000 m show an increase in 230 Th-normalized xsBa mass accumulation rates (MARs) with increasing water depth during both marine oxygen isotope stages (MIS) 1 and 2. The correlation of xsBa MARs with depth are strong despite differences in bulk sediment MARs and differing degrees of sediment redistribution. We interpret the increasing xsBa with water depth as likely due to the continued decomposition and remineralization of falling and/or resuspended biogenic particles. xsBa does not seem to be affected by diagenetic sulfate reduction in most of the cores. Calculated estimates of xsBa preservation in the sediment pile are high and fluctuate between 45% and 52% throughout the last 25 kyr. Although xsBa fluxes can be a robust indicator of paleoproductivity, caution is needed if (a) there is evidence of sulfate reduction in sediments being analyzed, and (b) one is trying to quantify differences in paleoproductivity among sites that are located at different depths in the water column.
This study estimated the cause-and-effect relationship between economic development and environmental degradation in 92 countries using a Cobb-Douglas production model. The empirical findings found a positive and bi-directional causal association between economic development and environmental degradation across countries. The economic development enhancing factors were key drivers to increase environmental degradation. In contrary, environmental degradation promoting factors such as CO2 intensity, industrialization, urbanization, energy consumption, and agricultural production activities showed a positive impact on economic development. The empirical results also suggested that the impact of a few variables on environmental degradation and economic development differed in high, upper-middle, lower-middle, and low-income countries.
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