Nutritional challenges and health implications of takeaway and fast foodhttp://researchonline.ljmu.ac.uk/6791/ Article LJMU has developed LJMU Research Online for users to access the research output of the University more effectively. Copyright © and Moral Rights for the papers on this site are retained by the individual authors and/or other copyright owners. Users may download and/or print one copy of any article(s) in LJMU Research Online to facilitate their private study or for non-commercial research. You may not engage in further distribution of the material or use it for any profit-making activities or any commercial gain.The version presented here may differ from the published version or from the version of the record. Please see the repository URL above for details on accessing the published version and note that access may require a subscription. Consumption of takeaway and fast food is growing in popularity among Western 12 societies, and is particularly widespread among adolescents. As it is well known that food 13 plays an important role in the development and prevention of many diseases there is no doubt 14 that observed changes in dietary patterns affect the quality of the diet as well as public health. 15This review examines the nutritional characteristics of takeaway and fast food including 16 energy density, total fat, saturated and trans fatty acid content. It also reports the association 17 between the consumption of such foods and health outcomes. Findings on the effect of 18 takeaway and fast food consumption on health complications are limited. Therefore, more 19 studies should be directed at better understanding of the nutrition and health consequences of 20 eating takeaway and fast food and to find the best strategy to reduce the negative impact of 21 their consumption on public health. 22

Purpose – This paper aims to determine the nutritional profile of popular takeaway meals in the UK. Fast food has a poor nutritional profile; research has focused on the major catering chains, with limited data on takeaway food from independent establishments. Design/methodology/approach – Random samples of takeaway meals were purchased from small, independent takeaway establishments. Multiple samples of 27 different takeaway meals, from Indian, Chinese, kebab, pizza and English-style establishments (n = 489), were analysed for portion size, energy, protein, carbohydrate, total fat, salt and total sugars. Findings – Takeaway meals were inconsistent with UK dietary recommendations; pizzas revealed the highest energy content, and Chinese meals were lowest in total fat. However, there was a high degree of variability between and within categories, but the majority of meals were excessive for portion size, energy, macronutrients and salt. Research limitations/implications – The present study focused on energy, macronutrients, salt and total sugars. Future research should analyse the quality of fat and carbohydrates and micronutrients to provide a more detailed nutritional profile of takeaway food. Practical implications – The nutritional variability between establishments suggests that recipe reformulation should be explored in an attempt to improve the nutritional quality of takeaway foods. In addition, portion size reduction could favour both the consumer and the industry. Social implications – Takeaway outlets do not provide nutritional information; due to the excessive nutritional profiles, regular intake may increase the risk of non-communicable disease. Therefore, there is a pressing need for this provision to help consumers make conscious food choices. Originality/value – This is the first study to analyse energy and macronutrient content of independent takeaway meals in the UK.

Determination of salt content in hot takeaway meals in the United Kingdom 26Highlights 27 ► high sodium intake is associated with negative health outcomes ► pizzas had the highest salt 28 content per portion, followed by Chinese meals ► significant differences in salt content between 29 meals in the same category were found ► results show salt content in takeaway food is 30 alarmingly high 31 Abstract 32High sodium intake is associated with negative health outcomes, including an independent 33 correlation with high blood pressure which increases the risk of cardiovascular disease. A high 34proportion of sodium intake in the UK is from processed and out of the home food; this includes 35 takeaway food which is increasing in popularity. The aim of the present study was to evaluate 36 salt levels in popular hot takeaway meals. A total of 411 samples of 23 different types of 37 takeaway meals were analysed. Obtained results show the salt content in these kinds of foods is 38 alarmingly high. Comparing medians (interquartile range) for different meal categories, Pizzas 39 contained the highest salt content per portion (9.45 g (6.97-12.83), followed by Chinese meals 40 (8.07 g (5.47-10.99g)), ) and Indian meals (4.73 g (3.61-6.10)). In 41 addition, significant differences in the salt content between meals within the same category were 42 reported. To enable the consumer to meet the UK's target salt intake, a significant reduction in the 43 salt content of hot takeaway meals should be considered. 44 45

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Chronic, low-grade inflammation is linked to the development of non-communicable diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, obesity, insulin resistance, diabetes, and others which together contribute to more than 50% of deaths globally. Modulation of inflammatory responses may be a promising strategy, and n-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 LC-PUFA) may offer a new therapeutic option in inflammatory conditions. Seaweeds are characterised by high nutritional quality and are a good source of many bioactive compounds, including n-3 LC-PUFA. This review addresses the potential anti-inflammatory properties of seaweed derived lipids, and their immunomodulating mechanisms in order to identify the possible applications of seaweed as an anti-inflammatory functional food ingredient or dietary supplement. A few studies have evaluated the anti-inflammatory activity of seaweed lipids using crude lipid extracts, lipid fractions and isolated complex lipids from several seaweeds belonging to the Ochrophyta and Rhodophyta phyla, with only three Ulva rigida, Ulva sp. and Codium tomentosum within the Chlorophyta phylum. It was reported that seaweed derived lipids suppress inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 expression and reduce nuclear factor κB p100 and myeloid differentiation primary response 88 protein levels leading to the downregulation of the production of several pro-inflammatory cytokines and nitric oxide. Further investigations are required to unravel the complex mechanisms underlying their preventive action against chronic inflammation and their potential use as a new functional food ingredient and/or health supplement.

Eating out of the home is growing in popularity and about 22 % of Britons have been found to purchase foods from takeaway outlets at least once a week and 58 % a few times a month (1) . Foods prepared outside the home are generally considered to be high in energy, saturated and trans fatty acids, total fat and salt (2) . While previous studies have investigated the nutritional quality of food provided by fast food chains, there is still a lack of data regarding the nutrient composition of meals purchased from independent takeaway outlets.Takeaway meal samples were collected from small independent takeaway establishments. Components such as energy, total fat and salt were determined. The 463 samples of twenty three different takeaway meals were classified into five groups (Chinese, Indian, English, Pizzas, Kebabs). The variability in the mean nutrient content across and within meal groups, and in the same type of meal but purchased from different establishments was assessed using Kruskal-Wallis Anova, statistical significance P < 0.05. The results are presented as mean (minimum-maximum).Results showed that takeaway meals contain high levels of fat and salt and are energy dense, regardless of the type of cuisine. Significant variation in the mean nutrient content per 100 g across and within product categories was also observed. Pizzas were characterised by the highest mean level of salt (1.41/100 g), total fat (12.0 g/100 g) and energy content (1179.888 kJ/100 g (282 kcal/100 g)) when compared with other meal categories.

The aim of the study was to analyse the saturated fatty acid (SFA) and trans fatty acid (TFA) content of popular takeaway foods in the UK (including English, pizza, Chinese, Indian, and kebab cuisine).Samples of meals were analysed by an accredited public analyst laboratory for SFA and TFA. The meals were highly variable for SFA and TFA. English and Pizza meals had the highest median amount of SFA with 35.7 g/meal; Kebab meals were high in TFA with up to 5.2 g/meal. When compared to UK dietary reference values some meals exceeded SFA and TFA recommendations from just one meal.Takeaway food would be an obvious target to reduce SFA and TFA content and increase the potential of meeting UK recommendations. Strategies such as reformulation and smaller takeaway portion sizes warrant investigation.

Objective: To examine the potential association between Chlamydophila pneumoniae infection and obesity indicators after controlling for nutrient and energy intake, as well as age, smoking status, physical activity and educational level. Subjects: A total of 118 healthy adult females randomly recruited from the local community of Bydgoszcz, aged 20-80 years. Methods: Serum was tested for specific IgG antibodies against C. pneumoniae using qualitative enzyme linked immunosorbent assay. Usual dietary intake was assessed by a 7-day food record. Information regarding smoking, physical activity and educational level was collected using the questionnaire. Body mass index (BMI) and percentage of total body fat (%FM) were calculated respectively, as weight (kilograms) divided by height (meters) squared and with the equations of Durnin and Womersley. Results: The prevalence of C. pneumoniae infection was significantly higher among overweight/obese subjects (77.1 vs 60.0%; P ¼ 0.047) in comparison with normal-weight individuals. Using multivariate regression analysis, a significant positive association of BMI (b ¼ 0.194; P ¼ 0.036) and %FM (b ¼ 0.176; P ¼ 0.049) with C. pneumoniae IgG antibody positivity was found after adjustment for age, total energy intake, percentage of energy from fat, carbohydrate and protein, physical activity, educational level and smoking habits. Moreover, the multivariable adjusted odds ratio of being overweight/obese for the seropositive group compared with seronegative individuals was 1.70 (95% confidence interval: 1.02-2.89; P ¼ 0.037). Conclusion:The results indicated that C. pneumoniae infection may be associated with a risk of becoming overweight/ developing obesity independently of dietary and lifestyle factors.