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Nutritional challenges and health implications of takeaway and fast foodhttp://researchonline.ljmu.ac.uk/6791/ Article LJMU has developed LJMU Research Online for users to access the research output of the University more effectively. Copyright © and Moral Rights for the papers on this site are retained by the individual authors and/or other copyright owners. Users may download and/or print one copy of any article(s) in LJMU Research Online to facilitate their private study or for non-commercial research. You may not engage in further distribution of the material or use it for any profit-making activities or any commercial gain.The version presented here may differ from the published version or from the version of the record. Please see the repository URL above for details on accessing the published version and note that access may require a subscription. Consumption of takeaway and fast food is growing in popularity among Western 12 societies, and is particularly widespread among adolescents. As it is well known that food 13 plays an important role in the development and prevention of many diseases there is no doubt 14 that observed changes in dietary patterns affect the quality of the diet as well as public health. 15This review examines the nutritional characteristics of takeaway and fast food including 16 energy density, total fat, saturated and trans fatty acid content. It also reports the association 17 between the consumption of such foods and health outcomes. Findings on the effect of 18 takeaway and fast food consumption on health complications are limited. Therefore, more 19 studies should be directed at better understanding of the nutrition and health consequences of 20 eating takeaway and fast food and to find the best strategy to reduce the negative impact of 21 their consumption on public health. 22

Out-of-home foods (takeaway, take-out and fast foods) have become increasingly popular in recent decades and are thought to be a key driver in increasing levels of overweight and obesity due to their unfavourable nutritional content. Individual food choices and eating behaviours are influenced by many interrelated factors which affect the results of nutrition-related public health interventions. While the majority of research based on out-of-home foods comes from Australia, the UK and USA, the same issues (poor dietary habits and increased prevalence of non-communicable disease) are of equal concern for urban centres in developing economies undergoing 'nutrition transition' at a global scale. The present narrative review documents key facets, which may influence out-of-home food consumption, drawn from biological, societal, environmental, demographic and psychological spheres. Literature searches were performed and references from relevant papers were used to find supplementary studies. Findings suggest that the strongest determinants of out-of-home food availability are density of food outlets and deprivation within the built environment; however, the association between socio-economic status and out-of-home food consumption has been challenged. In addition, the biological and psychological drives combined with a culture where overweight and obesity are becoming the norm makes it 'fashionable' to consume out-of-home food. Other factors, including age group, ethnicity and gender demonstrate contrasting effects and a lack of consensus. It is concluded that further consideration of the determinants of out-of-home food consumption within specific populations is crucial to inform the development of targeted interventions to reduce the impact of out-of-home foods on public health.

Purpose – This paper aims to determine the nutritional profile of popular takeaway meals in the UK. Fast food has a poor nutritional profile; research has focused on the major catering chains, with limited data on takeaway food from independent establishments. Design/methodology/approach – Random samples of takeaway meals were purchased from small, independent takeaway establishments. Multiple samples of 27 different takeaway meals, from Indian, Chinese, kebab, pizza and English-style establishments (n = 489), were analysed for portion size, energy, protein, carbohydrate, total fat, salt and total sugars. Findings – Takeaway meals were inconsistent with UK dietary recommendations; pizzas revealed the highest energy content, and Chinese meals were lowest in total fat. However, there was a high degree of variability between and within categories, but the majority of meals were excessive for portion size, energy, macronutrients and salt. Research limitations/implications – The present study focused on energy, macronutrients, salt and total sugars. Future research should analyse the quality of fat and carbohydrates and micronutrients to provide a more detailed nutritional profile of takeaway food. Practical implications – The nutritional variability between establishments suggests that recipe reformulation should be explored in an attempt to improve the nutritional quality of takeaway foods. In addition, portion size reduction could favour both the consumer and the industry. Social implications – Takeaway outlets do not provide nutritional information; due to the excessive nutritional profiles, regular intake may increase the risk of non-communicable disease. Therefore, there is a pressing need for this provision to help consumers make conscious food choices. Originality/value – This is the first study to analyse energy and macronutrient content of independent takeaway meals in the UK.

Determination of salt content in hot takeaway meals in the United Kingdom 26Highlights 27 ► high sodium intake is associated with negative health outcomes ► pizzas had the highest salt 28 content per portion, followed by Chinese meals ► significant differences in salt content between 29 meals in the same category were found ► results show salt content in takeaway food is 30 alarmingly high 31 Abstract 32High sodium intake is associated with negative health outcomes, including an independent 33 correlation with high blood pressure which increases the risk of cardiovascular disease. A high 34proportion of sodium intake in the UK is from processed and out of the home food; this includes 35 takeaway food which is increasing in popularity. The aim of the present study was to evaluate 36 salt levels in popular hot takeaway meals. A total of 411 samples of 23 different types of 37 takeaway meals were analysed. Obtained results show the salt content in these kinds of foods is 38 alarmingly high. Comparing medians (interquartile range) for different meal categories, Pizzas 39 contained the highest salt content per portion (9.45 g (6.97-12.83), followed by Chinese meals 40 (8.07 g (5.47-10.99g)), ) and Indian meals (4.73 g (3.61-6.10)). In 41 addition, significant differences in the salt content between meals within the same category were 42 reported. To enable the consumer to meet the UK's target salt intake, a significant reduction in the 43 salt content of hot takeaway meals should be considered. 44 45

A ND M. J . B AI L EY . 1999. Pseudomonas fluorescens 54/96, originally isolated from the rhizosphere of sugar beet, has been shown to be commercially effective in field trials for the suppression of a number of fungal diseases of seedlings. In vitro and microcosmbased assays revealed that both the timing and method of application of bacteria were important for effective control of Pythium ultimum, the causative agent of damping-off disease. Following transposon mutagenesis (Tn5lac), mutants deficient for the suppression of Pythium ultimum infections of peas were isolated. Three major classes of insertional mutants of Ps. fluorescens 54/96 were identified which either inhibited sporulation, reduced mycelial growth or affected the regulation of bacterial metabolic activity. Evaluation of the metabolic capability of pathogen and antagonist revealed evidence for direct competition, as both the fungus and bacterium had similar sole carbon source nutrient utilization profiles. Further comparisons of the activity of the transposon mutants indicated that although the mechanisms of disease control were multifactorial, the most significant factor was the prevention of rapid spore germination in the presence of pea seeds.

Non-nutritive sweeteners (NNS) are popular sugar substitutes that can help in weight and diabetes management, but concerns regarding their use have been raised by the public. This study aimed to investigate knowledge, benefits and safety perceptions of NNS in a sample of UK adults. The impact of knowledge dissemination on the change in perceptions was also examined. An online survey was distributed through social media platforms and UK Universities and was completed by 1589 participants aged 18 years and above. Results showed a high-risk perception of NNS and a lack of knowledge in regulations in nearly half the population sample. The artificial attributes of NNS further limited their acceptance. Risk perception has been significantly linked to a lower consumption of sweeteners (p < 0.001) and was affected by gender, occupation, education levels, age and body weight status. Information dissemination significantly reduced risk perception and increased awareness of the benefits of NNS. Results suggest that developing effective communication strategies to educate consumers, potentially through trusted health government agencies and professional bodies, can help them to make informed choices. Education of health professionals could also be valuable in reassuring the public of the benefits of NNS.

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