Staphylococcus aureus is a potential pathogen of hospital and community related infections. It secretes toxins or the enzymes as virulence factor of mild to severe infections and show resistance to beta-lactam antibiotic including penicillin, methicillin, oxacillin and now vancomycin that could alarm of equal risk factors of Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections in the patients. The survey report of 381 patients of Hyderabad, Pakistan was collected from March 2013 to June 2014 in which 176 cases were reported for Staphylococcus aureus in both genders of different age groups of 3-15 y kids, 16-45 y adults and 45-70 y olds, which showed 208 and 132 specimens Staphylococcus infection and 16 and 4 cases of MRSA infections in male and female patients, respectively whereas other 31 cases showed no infection. The laboratory diagnosis of the 200 samples from various hospitalized patients revealed the highest percentage of Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus MRSA in pus and post-operative wounds (17%) followed by skin swabs (10%), sputum (7%) and blood (0%). The observations revealed greater prevalence of MRSA infection in elderly age 16-45 years males than the females and other age groups. Antibiotic susceptibility test of 26 antibiotics revealed resistance (R-53%), sensitive (S-39) and variable (V-7%) sensitivity zones (mm). Amplification of mecA gene was done using PCR reaction that revealed mecA gene bands up to 150-200 base pairs by test resistant strains.

The uses of herbal medicines are well recognized since the advent of mankind having very little side effects. Their use is a cheaper and quite affordable source of antimicrobial particularly in the rural areas. Some of the microbial strains are drug resistant and are always been a threat to human life. The herbal therapy is the best choice of remedy against the drug-resistant strains, which had opened the new roads for conventional use due to several antimicrobial phytochemicals and essential oils. Momordica charantia Linnaeus (L). and Citrus limon L. contain phytochemicals, which affect the bacteria, fungi, viruses, and parasites The aim of this study is to examine the effects of Momordica charantia and Citrus limon peel extracts on gram-positive and gramnegative bacteria. Preparation of extracts in ethanol, methanol, and ether were prepared and activation of test cultures, antimicrobial assay by disc diffusion, well diffusion and spectrophotometry at 600 nm. The greater zones of inhibition were determined by ethanolic extract of Momordica charantia on the growth of Bacillus cereus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa whereas Citrus limon methanolic peel extract revealed the greater effects on Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, and Escherichia coli at 15 and 20 µl concentrations respectively. The observations concluded that both the plant extracts have effects on bacteria that indicate that the preparations of these extracts up to pharmaceutical standard may be effectively used as antibacterial therapy against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.

The present study demonstrates the synthesis and antimicrobial activity of the ptetranitrocalix[4]arene (3). The microbial activity was determined against a variety of microorganisms, i.e., Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial strains such as Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 10231, Streptococcus viridans ATCC 12392, Escherichia coli ATCC 8739, as well as some fungal species including Aspergillus niger ATCC 16404, Aspergillus flavus ATCC 90906, and Candida albicans ATCC 32333. Kirby-Bauer well agar diffusion method was employed for the determination of antimicrobial activity. All the microorganisms were applied to a selective agar medium (Mueller Hinton Agar) for growth. It was observed that compound 3 is considerably effective against selected microorganisms. The MIC values were also evaluated. Thus, from the results it could be deduced that compound 3 may be a valuable addition to the therapeutic index.

Background: Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is the most significant source of chronic liver diseases in the globe. About 170 million individuals are infected by HCV worldwide. The reported prevalence of HCV in different areas of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) ranges from 4.1 to 36%. Objectives: The current study aimed to analyze the true prevalence of HCV infection in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Materials and Methods: Three hundred and ninety HCV enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) positive samples that belonged to the different regions of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa were sent to the Genome Centre for Molecular Based Diagnostics & Research (GCMBDR), Lahore, from January 2011 to March 2011, and were selected for the current study. Serological and biochemical data of these samples were provided by clinicians. Out of 390 samples, 40 were provided from Mardan, 65 from Dir (Lower), 185 from Swat and 100 from Malakand districts of Pakistan. Results: Out of 390 patients, 140 were found HCV RNA positive (by Polymerase Chain Reaction method) and 250 subjects were excluded from further analysis. Out of PCR positive subjects, 81 were male and 59 were female. All individuals were categorized in four age groups that is, 0 to 20, 21 to 40, 41 to 60 and above 60 years. HCV RNA was found in 16.67%, 37.5%, 35.51% and 36% of these groups, respectively. District wise HCV positivity rates were 36.2 % in Swat, 38.4% in Dir (L), 36% in Malakand and 30% in Mardan, respectively. Conclusions: It was found that among the studied areas, Dir district had the highest prevalence of HCV, the majorly of affected patients were among the age group of 21 to 40 , male patients were found more susceptible to this infection (P = 0.0103 < 0.05), and the possible reason can be the high exposure of males to the HCV infection risk factors. Furthermore the current study was unable to find the important risk factors responsible for the frequent prevalence of HCV infection in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

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