The ORCID identification number(s) for the author(s) of this article can be found under https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202003456.footprint of LIBs by designing their components that are less toxic and more abundant, the inevitable recycling is still largely in disagreement with circular principles. [1,2] This review summarizes and critically assesses current LIB recycling technologies from a sustainable perspective in order to derive whether current solutions can be referred as green technologies. The structure of the present review contains an introduction to the historical evolution of Li-based storage devices and recent issues in the supply chain of critical raw materials (CRMs) (Section 1), before focusing on chemical recycling strategies. This section shall deliver the mandatory input parameters for the subsequent analysis of LIBs recycling technologies to the reader. The review's primary focus is on the chemical aspects of LIBs recycling rather than technological aspects of recycling, and we refer readers to recently published reviews for the latter. [3,4] The second section encompasses conventional recycling methods and includes besides published articles in peer-reviewed journal also recycling solutions that were patented. Given the high economic importance of recycling business models, it is not surprising that many prospective solutions are only available in form of patent applications rather than being published in scientific journals. The third section expands recycling to sustainable recycling that ensures both a reduced toxicity and a close to CO 2 -neutral process. The fourth section elucidates the impact of using renewable materials on the chemistry of recycling processes of LIBs. The fifth section spans the connection of LIBs recycling to future Li-based energy storage devices. The final section concludes with an outlook to the future of sustainable recycling. The review considers only previously reported work that either i) describes the experimental details or ii) offers a reference to patents that describe the experimental procedure. Although we do not neglect the importance of published reports that may not fulfill the abovementioned requirements, we strongly believe that the latter are necessary for the development of sustainable recycling process ensuring reproducibility. Technology of LIBsThe light molar weight of lithium (M = 6.94 g mol −1 and density ρ = 0.53 g cm −3 ) and the most negative potential among metals (−3.04 V vs standard hydrogen electrode) of the Li + /Li
A hexanuclear coordination cage can increase the size of its cavity from nearly zero to more than 500 Å(3), which allows the encapsulation of two coronene molecules.
The development of smart and sustainable photocatalysts is in high priority for the synthesis of H2O2 because the global demand for H2O2 is sharply rising. Currently, the global market share for H2O2 is around 4 billion US$ and is expected to grow by about 5.2 billion US$ by 2026. Traditional synthesis of H2O2 via the anthraquinone method is associated with the generation of substantial chemical waste as well as the requirement of a high energy input. In this respect, the oxidative transformation of pure water is a sustainable solution to meet the global demand. In fact, several photocatalysts have been developed to achieve this chemistry. However, 97% of the water on our planet is seawater, and it contains 3.0–5.0% of salts. The presence of salts in water deactivates the existing photocatalysts, and therefore, the existing photocatalysts have rarely shown reactivity toward seawater. Considering this, a sustainable heterogeneous photocatalyst, derived from hydrolysis lignin, has been developed, showing an excellent reactivity toward generating H2O2 directly from seawater under air. In fact, in the presence of this catalyst, we have been able to achieve 4085 μM of H2O2. Expediently, the catalyst has shown longer durability and can be recycled more than five times to generate H2O2 from seawater. Finally, full characterizations of this smart photocatalyst and a detailed mechanism have been proposed on the basis of the experimental evidence and multiscale/level calculations.
Lignin is one the most fascinating natural polymers due to its complex aromatic‐aliphatic structure. Phenolic hydroxyl and carboxyl groups along with other functional groups provide technical lignins with reactivity and amphiphilic character. Many different lignins have been used as functional agents to facilitate the synthesis and stabilization of inorganic materials. Herein, the use of lignin in the synthesis and chemistry of inorganic materials in selected applications with relevance to sustainable energy and environmental fields is reviewed. In essence, the combination of lignin and inorganic materials creates an interface between soft and hard materials. In many cases it is either this interface or the external lignin surface that provides functionality to the hybrid and composite materials. This Minireview closes with an overview on future directions for this research field that bridges inorganic and lignin materials for a more sustainable future.
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